SAFETY 

IN 

Building Construction 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT 


TT-JIT HTQ A\/CT CDC INSURANCE COMPANY 
1 1 lili I KA V iLLilLKO INDEMNITY COMPANY 


G REATEST of all among casualty com¬ 
panies, The Travelers is also a 
giant in life insurance. 

Its enormous resources and traditional conser¬ 
vatism give Travelers policies an unusually large 
fundamental value. 

The premiums are no higher than any other 
company's. The Standards of operation are 
the highest. 

It has always led in enlightened methods— 
indeed has been the originator of a great part 
of the progressive ideas that underlie modern 
insurance. 

■THE TRAVELERS INDEMNITY COMPANY (owned and 
A controlled by the parent organization) writes insur¬ 
ance on the following lines: 

automobiles and teams 
Steam boilers flywheels plate glass 
burglary theft hold-up. 

In whatever field, whether that of compensation and 
liability, or life, health, and accident, TRAVELERS 
policies are the Standard. 








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SAFETY 

IN 

Building Construction 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT 


7899. 3-21-T6. 



Copyright, 1916, by 

The Travelers Insurance Company, 
Hartford, Connecticut 


JVJN -\ ri'S 


©CI.A433229 

X0> )' 


PREFACE 


So far as we are aware, no general discussion of 
the hazards of building construction has been published 
in this country, nor does it appear that any systematic 
and determined effort has been made, by legislation or 
otherwise, to reduce the number of accidents in this 
class of work. Nearly every city and large town 
has building laws, but these relate, as a rule, mainly 
to the safety of the building when it is completed, 
and there is little in them relating to the safety of the 
workmen during the construction of the building. 
Building contractors, with a few exceptions, give 
comparatively little time or thought to the considera¬ 
tion and enforcement of safe methods and practices, 
as may be seen by anyone who will make even the 
most superficial examination of a building in course 
of construction. Yet the need for greater attention 
to the safety of workmen in the building trades is 
plainly evident, because many very serious accidents 
occur. 

In the various operations of building construction, 
many lives are annually sacrificed that might be saved 
if proper precautions were taken. Not many years 
ago there were few buildings more than five or six 
stories high, and even at that time numerous accidents 
occurred. As modern business, both mercantile and 
manufacturing, became more localized and necessi¬ 
tated the employment of vast numbers of persons, 
and suitable building sites became more valuable, it 


iv THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

became important to increase the height of buildings, 
so that to-day in our large cities structures of twenty, 
thirty, or forty stories, or even more, are comparatively 
common. These greatly-increased heights, together 
with the radical changes in construction methods and 
materials that accompanied them, have naturally 
tended to increase the number of serious accidents. 

Modern safety engineering methods have kept pace 
with modern construction methods, however, so that 
the accident rate under the new conditions is probably 
no greater than that which formerly prevailed, pro¬ 
vided the inspection service and the supervision are 
of the best. 

As a class, the men engaged in construction work 
are fully as heedless with regard to their own safety 
as employees in other industries, while the natural 
hazards of the work are far greater than in many 
other lines. It is therefore important to consider 
what is known as the “human element”, and especially 
that part of it which relates to the attitude of the 
men with regard to accident-prevention methods and 
devices, and their willingness to conform to definite 
regulations in order to prevent accidents. This has 
an important bearing on accident-prevention work, 
because in addition to the accidents due to physical 
causes such as defective material and equipment, in¬ 
adequate inspection and supervision, lack of suitable 
safeguards, and various other circumstances and con¬ 
ditions, a large proportion of the accidents in all in¬ 
dustries can be attributed, more or less directly, to care¬ 
lessness or negligence. 

There is no more authoritative source of informa¬ 
tion with regard to accident prevention in building 


PREFACE 


construction than the Engineering and Inspection 
Division of The Travelers Insurance Company. 
In connection with their inspection work upon build¬ 
ings in course of construction, our safety engineers 
have made a careful and exhaustive study of this sub¬ 
ject in all its phases. They have made continuous 
inspections of many of the largest buildings in the 
world, during the entire period of erection; and they 
have also followed the construction of thousands of 
smaller ones. They have therefore had unexcelled 
opportunities for gaining a practical, first-hand knowl¬ 
edge of the hazards that arise in work of this kind, in 
connection with operations of all sorts. 

Experience has shown that the recommendations 
that our engineers and inspectors have made in con¬ 
nection with construction work have materially re¬ 
duced the accident rate; and in order to extend the bene¬ 
fits of our work as much as possible, we have brought 
together a considerable number of these recommenda¬ 
tions, and incorporated them in the present book. 

In preparing this work, no attempt has been made 
to deal with the subject exhaustively, because to do 
this would require a volume too large for convenient 
use and reference. Some branches of building con¬ 
struction,—foundation work, for example,—have been 
omitted or passed over with but brief mention, because 
it has seemed best to treat them separately, in future 
publications. Many of the hazardous operations of con¬ 
struction work are covered, however, and we believe that 
the present work will meet with favor, and that it will 
prove itself a valuable addition to the publications on 
practical accident prevention that our Engineering and 
Inspection Division is now putting forth. 


vi 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


Every person who engages in construction work, 
and every inspector who has to follow the progress of 
such work, should take special care to inform himself 
with respect to all laws and ordinances, bearing upon 
the conduct of the work, that may be in force in the 
particular locality in which the operation is to be 
carried out. All such laws and ordinances must be 
faithfully obeyed, and preference must be given to 
them without hesitation in case they happen to con¬ 
flict with counsel given in this book. 

The Travelers Insurance Company, 

Hartford, Connecticut. 


CONTENTS. 

(Paragraph numbers are given on the left, and page numbers on the right.) 


Section I. Demolition Work: ....... 1 

1. In general, ......... 1 

2. Planning the work, ........ 1 

3. Shoring adjoining buildings, ...... 2 

4. Gas and electricity, ....... 2 

5. Order of procedure, ....... 4 

6. Throwing down material, ...... 4 

7. Material chutes, ........ 4 

8. Removing walls in sections, ...... 6 

9. Use of the oxy-acetylene cutting-flame, .... 7 

10. Miscellaneous, ........ 10 

Section II. Excavation Work: . . . . . . 12 

11. General suggestions, . . . . . . . 12 

12. Steam shovels, ........ 14 

Section III. Protection for the Public: . . . . 17 

13. Sidewalk sheds and bridges, . . . . . . 17 

14. Street coverings, . . . . . . . 18 

15. Protective platforms, . . . . . . . 18 

16. Protecting pavements, ....... 20 

17. Storing materials, . . . . . . . .21 

18. Excluding persons from buildings, . . ... . 22 

Section IV. Hoisting: .23 

19. Location and protection of hoisting engines, ... 23 

20. Types of hoisting engines, ...... 25 

21. Boilers, .......... 25 

22. Electric motors, ........ 26 

23. Signaling systems, . . . . . . . . 27 

24. Protection of signal cords, ...... 30 

25. Hoisting cables and sheaves, ...... 31 

26. Material hoists, ........ 35 

27. Passenger hoists, ........ 40 

28. Slings, .......... 42 
















The Travelers Insurance Company 


viii 


Section V. Derricks: ........ 47 

29. Types, .......... 47 

30. Stiff-leg derricks, ........ 47 

31. Guy derricks, . . . . . . . .51 

32. Breast or house derricks, . . . . . . . 57 

33. General precautions in the use of derricks, ... 60 

Section VI. Scaffolds: . . . . . . . . 62 

34. Introductory, . . . . . . . 62 

35. Pole scaffolds, ........ 62 

36. Suspended scaffolds, ....... 62 

37. Horse scaffolds, ........ 63 

38. Riveters’ scaffolds, ........ 64 

39. Painters’ scaffolds, ........ 65 

40. In general, ......... 66 

Section VII. Ladders, Stairways, and Runways: ... 70 

41. Ladders, ......... 70 

42. Stairways, ......... 74 

43. Runways, ......... 75 

Section VIII. Steelworkers: .78 

44. Erecting gangs, . . . . . . . . 78 

45. The immediate riveting of beams, . . . . . 79 

46. Erecting floors, ........ 81 

47. Rivet-heaters’ platforms, ...... 82 

48. Throwing rivets, ........ 82 

49. Pneumatic hammers, ....... 82 

50. Care of air hose, ........ 83 

51. Handling structural steel, ...... 83 

Section IX. General Precautions: ...... 84 

52. Covering floors, ........ 84 

53. The nail hazard, ........ 89 

54. Hand tools, ......... 90 

55. Wheelbarrows, . . . . . . . .91 

56. Explosives, ......... 92 

57. Life lines and safety belts, ...... 93 

58. Miscellaneous, ........ 96 

59. Inspections, ......... 99 
















ILLUSTRATIONS. 

(The numbers of the illustrations are given on the left, and the page numbers on the right.) 


1. 

Damage to building caused by excavating, 


3 

2. 

Damage to building caused by excavating, 


5 

3. 

House-wrecking: dangerous methods, . . . . 


8 

4. 

House-wrecking: safe methods, . . . . . 


9 

5. 

Excavating for a large office building, . 


13 

6. 

Guard to intercept objects falling from windows, 


19 

7. 

Poorly-made protection for a sidewalk, . . . . 


20 

8. 

Unsafe piling of heavy steel girders, . 


21 

9. 

Unprotected hoisting engine, cables, and guide blocks, 


24 

10. 

Signal cords inclosed in iron pipes, . 


28 

11. 

Protection for signal cords, ...... 


29 

12. 

Protection for lead blocks and cables, . . . . 


30 

13. 

Effective guard for hoisting cables, . 


31 

14. 

Unguarded shaftway for a material hoist, 


33 

15. 

Unprotected material hoist and shaft way, 


34 

16. 

An approved type of material-hoist fencing, ... 


36 

17. 

Overhead covering for the cage of a material hoist, . 


37 

18. 

Overhead covering for the shaft of a material hoist, . 


38 

19. 

Iron stairway, broken by a falling load of material, . 


39 

20. 

Protection for a passenger-hoist shaft way, 


41 

21. 

Diagram of a guy derrick, . . . 


48 

22. 

Diagram of a stiff-leg derrick, . . . . 


49 

23. 

A typical hoisting tower, ...... 


52 

24. 

Wire-cable slings for anchoring derrick guys, 


53 

25. 

An approved method for anchoring derrick foot-blocks, 


54 

26. 

Another view of the fastening shown in Fig. 25, 


56 

27. 

Breast derrick with unprotected gears, . 


58 

28. 

Breast derricks used for setting stone, . 


60 

29. 

A hazard in the use of suspended scaffolds, 


63 

30. 

Dangerous method of supporting a horse scaffold, 


65 

31. 

A study in dangerous scaffolding, . . . . . 


67 

32. 

A poorly-constructed ladder, ...... 


71 

33. 

A steep single-plank runway, ...... 


75 

34. 

Dangerous conditions about a runway, . . . . 


76 

35. 

A workman taking unnecessary chances, . 


79 

36. 

Steel men being lifted to their work, . 


80 


/ 







x The Travelers Insurance Company 

37. Protective plank flooring in a ventilating shaft, ... 84 

38. A dangerous floor-opening, ....... 85 

39. An accident-source that is frequently overlooked, ... 86 

40. An unguarded elevator shaftway, ...... 87 

41. Approved guard-rails for permanent openings, .... 88 

42. Dangerous treatment of a projecting nail, .... 90 

43. Correct method of hammering down a nail, .... 90 

44. Working under dangerous conditions, ..... 93 

45. Painting the steelwork of a “ skyscraper, M .... 94 

46. Keep all material away from the edges of floors, ... 95 

47. Poorly-piled floor tiles, ........ 96 

48. A dangerous pile of bricks, ....... 97 

49. Cloth screen for stopping flying chips of stone, ... 98 






SAFETY 


IN 

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 


I. DEMOLITION WORK. 

1. In General. In many cases it is necessary to 
remove existing buildings before any actual construc¬ 
tion work can be done. The wrecking of a building 
appears to the inexperienced observer to be a simple 
and an easy task, but it nevertheless calls for exper¬ 
ience and skill, because there are many dangers con¬ 
nected with it, even when the structure to be demol¬ 
ished is quite small; and in the case of a large struc¬ 
ture these hazards are multiplied many times. Every 
such job should be supervised by a person of sound 
judgment, who should also be capable of handling the 
working force competently and effectively. The men 
should be selected, so far as possible, with reference 
to their capabilities, and each should be assigned to 
the particular kind of work for which he appears to 
be best fitted. 

2. Planning the Work. Before beginning the 
actual work of demolition, a careful study should 
be made of the structure that is to be torn down, and 
of its surroundings; and a definite plan of procedure 
should be mapped out, which should thereafter be 



2 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


followed as closely as possible. This is especially 
important when haste is essential, because the work 
can be executed much more rapidly and safely when it 
proceeds in accordance with a definite scheme than 
when it is carried out in a haphazard manner. In 
formulating the plan it is necessary to consider the 
security of adjoining buildings, and to make adequate 
provision for their safety. 

3. Shoring Adjoining Buildings. Extensive shor¬ 
ing of other buildings is often imperative, and full 
provision should be made for carrying out all neces¬ 
sary operations of this kind promptly and thoroughly, 
and in a safe and workmanlike way. When a fire, 
flood, explosion, or other catastrophe has partially 
wrecked a structure, it may also be necessary to shore 
up or brace some of the walls or other parts of the 
building that is to be taken down, before the wrecking 
operations can be safely started. If the foundations of 
the building that is being razed extend below those 
of the neighboring buildings, only short sections 
should be removed at one time. The neighboring 
foundations may then be undermined, also by small 
portions, and extended to the level of the new founda¬ 
tions. When loose soil is encountered, and also when 
foundations extend to a considerable depth, it is often 
necessary to use sheet piling. 

4. Gas and Electricity. Make sure, at the very 
outset, that the gas pipes have been disconnected, 
and that all electric wires in the building are “dead”. 
If a strong odor of gas is subsequently perceived, 
stop the work until the source of the gas has been 
discovered, and do not allow the men to look for it 
with lanterns nor with open lights of any other kind. 


DEMOLITION WORK 


3 



Fig. 1. Damage Caused by Excavating Without Ade¬ 
quately Shoring the Wall of the Adjoining Building. 










4 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


5. Order of Procedure. The demolition work 
should always proceed systematically, story by story; 
and the work on the upper floors should be entirely 
completed before any of the supporting members 
or other important parts on the lower floors are dis¬ 
turbed. By proceeding in this orderly manner it 
is easy to eliminate various dangerous conditions, 
such as weak and unsupported walls and chimneys, 
towering above the workmen. 

6. Throwing Down Material. If material is 
to be thrown from an upper floor, place watchmen 
on the ground where they will command every means 
of approach, to warn all persons who may come near, 
and prevent them from entering the region of danger. 
Except in special cases, however, material should 
never be thrown down in this way. It is far safer 
to lower it by means of ropes or hoists, or to send it 
down through covered chutes. The men should be 
specially forbidden to throw heavy masses or large 
quantities of material from the upper floors down upon 
the lower ones. 

7. Material Chutes. Chutes should be provided, 
in all cases, for the removal of bricks and other loose 
debris, and they should be completely inclosed so 
that it will be impossible for the material to escape 
from them before it reaches the bottom. To prevent 
the descending material from attaining a dangerous 
speed, the chutes should not extend in an unbroken 
line for more than two stories. Gates or stops should 
be placed at both the top and bottom of each chute, 
and the upper gate, as well as the lower one, should be 
arranged so that it may be operated by the workman 
at the lower end in case the material becomes jammed. 


DEMOLITION WORK 


5 



Fig. 2. Another View of the Building Shown in Fig. 1. 

(Note the crude ladder at the right of the engraving.) 








6 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


If jamming occurs, do not attempt to loosen the 
material by hand, but use pickaxes, shovels, or tools 
of some other appropriate kind. Place a danger 
sign at the discharge end of every chute, and do not 
permit workmen or other persons to stand near a 
chute, nor to leave teams near one, except while 
loading from it. Flashboards of extra height should 
be placed on a wagon that is to be loaded from a 
chute, and the mouth of the chute should be sur¬ 
rounded by a short length of stout canvas or burlap 
weighted with a short piece of scantling or studding, 
to prevent material from bounding from the chute 
into the street. 

8. Removing Walls in Sections. Sections of 
wall should never be loosened and allowed to fall 
as single masses upon the floors of buildings that are 
being demolished, because the shock transmitted to 
the floor may cause it to give way; and chimneys 
and large sections of wall should never be pulled down 
bodily, even upon the ground, without taking every 
possible precaution to avoid accident, not only to the 
workmen but also to other persons. When an opera¬ 
tion of this nature is about to be performed, a crowd 
of idle sight-seers usually congregates at the nearest 
place from which a good view may be had, with but 
slight regard for their own safety. The man in charge 
of the work should see that all such persons retire 
permanently to a place well beyond the danger zone 
before the wall is disturbed. 

It is always better and safer to remove walls 
part by part, rather than to throw them down bodily; 
and if they are so thin or weak as to make it dangerous 
to stand upon them to remove the bricks and stones 


DEMOLITION WORK 


7 


of which they are composed, scaffolds or stagings 
should be erected beside them, for the men to work 
upon. 

9. Use of the Oxy-acetylene Cutting-flame. In 

demolishing buildings containing steel beams or other 
metallic structural elements, the oxy-acetylene flame 
is now widely used for cutting the metal. Work 
of this kind should always be done by an experienced 
man who thoroughly understands the process, and who 
also has sufficient knowledge of structural principles 
to avoid cutting off important members that are re¬ 
quired for supporting or strengthening the part of the 
building that still remains standing. 

Beams that are about to be cut should first be 
properly secured by ropes or chains, so that they can¬ 
not drop or swing when they have been cut away from 
the other steelwork to which they were attached. 
When the cut is completed the two ends are often 
held together by fused oxide, so that a blow from a 
sledge is necessary to separate them. However well 
the beam may have been secured, it is likely to swing 
slightly when the ends are finally severed, and unless 
the workman is watchful his hands may be caught 
and crushed or bruised. 

Continued exposure of the unprotected eyes to the 
acetylene flame acts injuriously upon them, and all 
operators of acetylene torches should be provided with 
colored-glass goggles, and should always wear them 
when working. They should also wear suitable 
gloves to protect their hands in case of accidental 
contact with the heated metal. 

Acetylene gas is poisonous, even when highly 
diluted with air, and care should be taken to avoid 


8 THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

inhaling it. It acts upon the blood in a manner similar 
to carbon monoxide, the effects of which are well 
known in connection with coal-gas poisoning. Special 
care in this respect should be exercised when using the 
acetylene torch in confined spaces. 



a. Thin, shaky, or insecure walls should be scaffolded. 

b. Walls and columns must not be undermined. 

c. Sections of wall should not be thrown down bodily upon the floors. 

d. Floors or joist-layers upon which work is being done should be tightly covered 

over with boards. 

e. Stair railings should be left in position as long as possible. 




































DEMOLITION WORK 


9 


Combustible material of every kind should be 
removed from the immediate vicinity of the acetylene 
torch, because fires may be started by direct contact 
with the flame, or by the fall of highly-heated pieces 
of metal or of oxide. 




Fig. 4. House-wrecking: Safe Methods. 


f. Chutes must be fully inclosed, on all sides. 

g. Do not remove materials from the chutes with the hands. Use picks or other 

suitable implements. 

h. Wreckage and rubbish must not be stored upon the floors of the building. 

i. Men should not work one above another without adequate safeguards. 
k. Plank shields for protecting persons on the street. 






















































10 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


Be careful in handling tanks containing oxygen 
under pressure, and never permit them to be dropped, 
nor to be subjected to shocks of any other kind. Do 
not allow such tanks to be exposed for any consid¬ 
erable time to the direct rays of the sun, nor to a 
high temperature from any other source, because the 
heat will increase the pressure and may cause the tanks 
to rupture. 

10. Miscellaneous. To prevent tools and loose 
materials from falling upon persons below, openings 
in floors should be kept covered over, except while 
they are in actual use; and all such openings, when they 
are being used for hoisting or for other purposes, 
should be guarded by substantial railings and toe- 
boards installed on at least three sides of each opening. 
Old materials and rubbish should be removed from 
the premises as fast as they accumulate, and should 
not be heaped up on the various floors, nor on the 
ground immediately outside of the building. Bricks 
and stones that have been removed, and that are to 
be preserved for future use, should be stored in orderly 
piles not more than five feet high, and the piles should 
be braced, if necessary, to prevent them from falling 
over. Piles of this nature should not rest directly upon 
the ground, but should be laid upon foundations of 
planks or boards. If it is necessary, for any reason, 
to store old material within the building for a time, 
great care must be taken to avoid overloading the 
floors. 

Sharp or jagged pieces of material or refuse should 
be promptly and carefully disposed of, and to prevent 
injuries from flying pieces of glass, the windows should 
all be removed during the early stages of the demoli- 


DEMOLITION WORK 


11 


tion work, and no broken glass should be left lying 
about in the building. It is also important to wet down 
the floors, stairways, chutes, and various other places, 
as often as may be necessary to keep down the dust. 

Figs. 3 and 4, which are adapted from Schlesin- 
ger’s “ Unfallverhutungstechnik, ” will serve to em¬ 
phasize some of the points that have been discussed in 
this section. To facilitate comparison, the reference 
letters have the same significance in both views,— 
the dangerous mode of procedure being shown in 
Fig. 3 in every case, and the corresponding safe one 
in Fig. 4. In several instances, however, a letter 
that is present in one view is omitted from the other 
one, because it would have no significance there. 


II. EXCAVATION WORK. 


11. General Suggestions. The work of pre¬ 
paring the foundations for a building is too impor¬ 
tant to be fully discussed in this book; but there are 
certain suggestions with regard to excavating which 
may properly be included, and which will make the 
work much safer if they are followed. 

Special precautions should be taken to avoid 
undermining the foundations of adjoining buildings. 
Whenever there appears to be any danger from this 
source the excavation work should be carried on in 
short sections, as already explained in paragraph 3, 
and the corresponding sections of the building walls 
should be substantially shored up or braced, or other 
effective means should be adopted to prevent the walls 
from settling or being damaged in other ways. It 
is also important to thoroughly prop up or brace the 
walls of excavations on the sides adjoining public 
streets, and at all other points where there is any 
danger of the caving-in of the earth. 

Excavations should be guarded on all sides by 
fences or railings; and all rocks, boulders, loose 
soil, and material of every kind should be kept back 
at least four feet from the edges of the openings. 

Inspect the walls of excavations frequently and 
thoroughly, particularly after heavy rainstorms, and 
do not let the employees work at any point where 
a cave-in seems probable, until adequate measures 


EXCAVATION WORK 


13 


have been taken to safeguard them. In particular, 
do not permit anyone to work under an overhanging 
mass of earth or rock that has not been made safe by 
the use of shores or props or other supports of un¬ 
doubted strength and effectiveness. 

When horses are used on the work, provide suit¬ 
able inclines of ample width for wagons loaded with 
the excavated material, and see that proper precau¬ 
tions are taken to prevent the wagons from tipping over. 

Whenever possible, the excavation work should be 
entirely completed before any building material is 
stored on the premises. Sometimes structural steel, 
timbers, brick, tile, and other materials are deposited 
in the partly-finished excavations, often with insuf- 



Fig. 5. Excavating for a Large Office Building. 

(View from above. Excavation has begun on the left, and the demolition of the building 
previously on the site is still proceeding on the right.) 







14 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


ficient care in storing and piling them, and these 
increase the difficulties and dangers of the work. 

Various mechanical appliances are used in exca¬ 
vation work, including derricks and steam shovels. 
The chief precautions to be taken in the operation of 
derricks are described in Section V. 

See also paragraph 56, page 92. 

12. Steam Shovels. The steam shovel is a 
prolific source of serious accidents. Many of these 
result from the breaking of the ropes or cables. When 
a cable gives way, the engineer is likely to be struck 
by the loose, flying end, unless a protective device of 
some kind is placed between him and the winding 
drums. A satisfactory guard may be made of heavy 
wire-mesh screen secured to a stout iron framework. 
This forms an effective protection that will not inter¬ 
fere with the engineer’s work, nor obstruct his view. 

The necessity for oiling the sheaves or making 
repairs at the point of the boom has led to many 
accidents. Workmen, encumbered with oil cans and 
tools, often fall when climbing out to the boom end, 
and receive serious injuries. Ladders or steps (pro¬ 
vided with hand-rails when this is practicable) can be 
placed on the booms without interfering with the 
operation of the shovels, and in this way much of the 
danger attendant on the care of the booms can be 
eliminated. 

The crank-shafts, as well as all exposed gears and 
set-screws, should be guarded or covered, even though 
no employee approaches these parts in the ordinary 
operation of the shovel. The hoisting chain or cable, 
at the bottom of the boom, should also be guarded. 
This part of the apparatus may be out of reach of 


EXCAVATION WORK 


15 


anyone on the ground level, yet it may cause an in¬ 
jury to a man on a wagon as the boom swings around. 

All ladders, steps, handholds, and other similar 
safeguards should be kept in a good state of repair. 
Snow, ice, and slippery mixtures of dirt and grease, 
should be removed; and oil-cans, picks, and other 
tools and implements should not be left about where 
persons may stumble over them. 

No employee or other person should be allowed 
on a steam shovel unless his duties require him to be 
there, and all persons should keep well away from the 
range of the shovel’s swing. This latter precaution is 
especially important when the shovel is loading material 
into wagons. Stones, or lumps of other heavy material, 
are likely to roll off as the shovel swings and drops its 
load on a wagon, and anyone standing near is likely 
to be injured by the falling fragments. Under some 
conditions, men may be engaged in drilling and blast¬ 
ing operations, close to the point where the shovel 
is clearing up the material loosened by previous 
blasts; and in cases of this kind special care should be 
taken to prevent either crew from injuring the other 
one. It is not at all uncommon to see a shovel with 
pieces of rock projecting over the edge, and these 
pieces often fall off. It is particularly important, in 
such cases, for the workmen to keep away from the 
path of the shovel, and to assist them in doing so 
the shovel operator should sound the whistle before 
starting to hoist. 

Care should be taken to prevent the upsetting of 
the shovel, which may be caused by an excessive load 
or by the yielding of the ground upon which the shovel 
rests. An experienced and cautious shovelman should 


16 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


be able to prevent accidents of this kind without 
mechanical aids. Under some circumstances, how¬ 
ever, it has been found advantageous to secure a 
U-tube, partly filled with mercury, to some part of 
the framework of the shovel,—arranging the tube so 
that an electrical connection will be made and a gong 
sounded, in case the shovel is tilted to a dangerous 
angle. 

Every steam shovel should be in charge of a com¬ 
petent man having a thorough knowledge, not only 
of shovels, but also of the operation and care of steam 
boilers and steam engines. Electricity has recently 
been introduced, in place of steam, as a motive power 
for shovels; and where it is used the hazards that, 
are incident to electric power have also to be con¬ 
sidered. The rough service characteristic of shovel 
work calls for frequent and careful inspection of 
the electrical apparatus, with special reference to the 
detection of defects that may interrupt the supply of 
current at critical moments. (See also the sugges¬ 
tions with regard to boilers and electrical apparatus, 
in paragraphs 21 and 22, respectively.) 


III. PROTECTION FOR THE PUBLIC. 


13. Sidewalk Sheds and Bridges. Whenever 
the structure that is being demolished or erected 
stands close to a street, or to a much frequented 
thoroughfare of any other kind, special precautions of 
an adequate and effective nature must be taken to 
protect all persons who may pass by. Under some 
conditions it may suffice to fence in the space to be 
occupied by the building, and in such cases it is advis¬ 
able to construct the barricades of boards set tightly 
together and extending to a height of at least 7 feet, 
so that passers will be unable to look over or through 
them, and will therefore have no incentive to loiter 
in the vicinity. At other times it is necessary to con¬ 
struct a shed or bridge or a combination of the two, 
covering the entire width of the sidewalk in front of 
the property; and if the adjoining street is narrow and 
the building is to be of considerable height, it may be 
necessary to extend a protecting shed over the entire 
street. Structures of this kind must always be strong 
and substantial, because it frequently happens that 
heavy objects fall upon them from considerable heights. 
Moreover, materials are often stored upon the tops of 
these sheds (although this practice is not to be recom¬ 
mended), and for this reason, also, substantial construc¬ 
tion is essential. 

Always install a fence and toe-board on the top 
of every covered sidewalk shed or bridge at its outer 


18 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


edge, to prevent materials or objects of any kind from 
sliding or rolling off into the street, whether they are 
stored upon the shed or fall down upon it from above. 
Stout wire netting having a mesh not larger than 
half an inch square is often used in the construc¬ 
tion of these fences, and when netting of this kind is 
strongly made and firmly secured in position it answers 
the purpose admirably. Provide substantial guard¬ 
rails and toe-boards on both sides of uncovered side¬ 
walk bridges, and install hand-rails on all steps leading 
to these bridges. 

For some strange reason the office of the head 
contractor, on the sidewalk bridge, is often located 
in an unnecessarily dangerous place, where it is likely 
to be struck by stones or by other objects that may 
fall to the bridge. Convenience requires that the 
office be near the work, but there is frequently a great 
difference in the exposure, according as it is built 
at one part of the sidewalk bridge or at some other 
part. Needless hazards of this kind should be avoided. 

14. Street Coverings. When the entire adjoin¬ 
ing street is covered, and holes are left in the covering, 
through which material may be hoisted, hinged 
covers composed of two-inch planks should be pro¬ 
vided for the openings, and the covers should be 
raised and lowered by means of blocks and falls. 
In addition, guard-rails and toe-boards should be 
installed on all four sides of the openings, and the 
whole inclosed with heavy wire netting. These 
guards should be set back at least two feet from the 
edges of the openings. 

15. Protective Platforms. In addition to the 
sidewalk shed it is sometimes necessary, on a high 


PROTECTION FOR THE PUBLIC 


19 



Fig. 6. A Guard to Intercept Falling Tools and Other 
Objects, when Men are Working about Windows. 

building, to extend protective platforms out from the 
building at different heights, to catch falling material 
and prevent it from descending into the street. A 
platform of this description may advantageously be 
15 feet or more in width, and it should be protected 
along its outer edge by substantial wire-mesh screens, 
similar to those described in paragraph 13. In the 






















20 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


construction of the Woolworth Building, platforms of 
this kind were installed at four different levels. 

16. Protecting Pavements. Where heavily-load¬ 
ed teams are driven across the sidewalk it is necessary 
to remove the pavement, or to cover it over in some 
way so that it will not be broken. Municipal regu¬ 
lations often require that the street pavement be 
protected against damage also, particularly when it 
is of sheet asphalt. It is customary to lay heavy planks 
over the pavements for this purpose, and care should 
be taken to see that no holes are left into which per¬ 
sons may step, and that the planks are level and are 
arranged so that they will not tip up at the ends and 
cause persons to stumble. It is often advisable to 
lay beveled planks at the sides and ends of protective 
coverings of this kind, and it is always important to 



Fig. 7. A Poorly-made Protection for a Sidewalk. 

(T l e , br ? ke . n Pla ?^ n 1 ear t j ie cur ,b should be removed and replaced by others that are sound 
and stout; and the boards on the sidewalk should be arranged so that they cannot tip up 
at the ends.) 





PROTECTION FOR THE PUBLIC 


21 



Fig. 8. Unsafe Piling of Heavy Steel Girders. 

(These are piled unnecessarily high. Moreover, the pile leans to the right, as shown by the 
improvised plumb-line.) 

see that there are no projecting nails or large splinters 
that might cause injuries. 

17. Storing Materials. When building material 
is stored in public highways, great care must be 
exercised to see that it is properly piled, so that it 
cannot fall over or collapse. It should be arranged 
so as to obstruct traffic as little as possible, and should 
in no case cover more than one-third of the width of 
any public highway. The piles should also be guarded 
at night by an adequate number of lights, located at 
conspicuous points. 






22 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


18. Excluding Persons from Buildings. All un¬ 
authorized persons should be excluded from places 
where demolition or construction operations are going 
on, not only because they are likely to be injured, but 
also because they often interfere with the workmen. 
When practicable, gates or doors may be installed 
to keep out all persons not directly connected with 
the work, or watchmen may be stationed 1 at the en¬ 
trances for the same purpose. Special arrangements 
may be made on behalf of persons seeking employment, 
either by designating certain hours when they will be 
admitted, or, preferably, by receiving them at some 
convenient point outside of the region of danger. 


IV. HOISTING. 


19. Location and Protection of Hoisting Engines. 

It is often necessary, at least during the early stages 
of building construction, to locate the hoisting engines 
in the public highway. This must necessarily result 
in obstructing traffic to some extent, and there are 
also various other objections to this arrangement, 
so that it is desirable to install the engines within the 
building as soon as the work has advanced to a stage 
where it is possible to do so. There are many advan¬ 
tages to be gained by placing the engines on the 
second-floor level, particularly on large construction 
jobs, because here they are out of the way of supplies 
and materials that are often brought into the building 
in trucks or wagons and stored upon the ground 
floor. Furthermore, this arrangement simplifies the 
protection of the hoisting cables and signal cords or 
wires that extend in different directions to various 
parts of the building. 

Regardless of the location of the hoisting engines, 
substantial roofs should be erected over them to 
intercept falling objects; and it is preferable to entirely 
inclose them, to protect the operators and the engines 
from inclement weather, until such time as the per¬ 
manent floor immediately above is in place, and the 
walls of the building have been carried up beyond 
the floor level on which the engines are located. When¬ 
ever the hoisting engines are located in the street, all 


24 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 9. Unprotected Hoisting Engine, Cables, and Guide 

Blocks. 

(Note, also, the state of general disorder that characterizes the workplace as a whole.) 




HOISTING 


25 


large structural steel members and blocks of stone, 
and all other heavy and massive objects should be 
hoisted on the side of the building opposite to that on 
which the engines are installed, when conditions will 
permit. Serious accidents have occurred when this 
precaution has been neglected. 

20. Types of Hoisting Engines. Hand-operated 
derricks and hoists of various types are quite generally 
employed on small construction jobs, and for certain 
parts of the work on larger ones. In large operations, 
however, steam engines or electric motors are indis¬ 
pensable. Provide effective protection for the exposed 
gears of all hoisting engines and motors, and guard all 
crank-shafts, sprocket wheels and chains, projecting 
set-screws and keys, and all other dangerous moving 
parts. See that a suitable space in the vicinity of 
hoisting engines is kept clear of unnecessary ropes 
and other objects that might become caught in the 
moving parts. Provide adequate and effective brakes 
for every hoisting engine, capable of holding the 
maximum load in any position. All hoists should be 
kept under perfect control at all times, and particular¬ 
ly when lowering heavy loads. Reliable limit-stops 
should be provided on all mechanically-operated hoists, 
to prevent overwinding. 

21. Boilers. Give special attention to the boilers 
of all steam hoisting-engines, because the conditions 
under which they are operated are likely to cause more 
rapid deterioration than would be the case with sta¬ 
tionary boilers. Periodical inspections by experts are 
essential, and all recommendations made by them 
should be promptly and carefully attended to. See 
that each boiler is provided with a reliable safety- 


26 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


valve, steam gage, water column, gage glass, and 
try-cocks, and test all of these devices frequently to 
make sure that they are in good working order. Keep 
the interior surfaces of the boiler clean, and free from 
scale and sediment. Before leaving for the night 
make sure that there is plenty of water in the boiler, 
and that the fire is properly banked and checked; and 
always ascertain the level of the water before unbank¬ 
ing the fire in the morning. See that all steam and 
water connections about the boiler and engine are 
kept tight, to prevent scalds and burns. 

22. Electric Motors. Electric motors are rapidly 
supplanting steam engines for hoisting work in many 
localities, and their use is particularly desirable in 
congested districts where the smoke, cinders, and 
steam from the boilers of steam hoisting-engines would 
be objectionable. Care must be taken to avoid shocks 
and burns when electric power is used, and therefore 
all parts of the electrical equipment should be inspected 
frequently and thoroughly, to see that everything is 
in good condition. Never permit unauthorized persons 
to tamper in any way with electrical apparatus, and 
see that all repairs and adjustments are made by 
competent electricians. 

An electric hoist should always be operated in 
strict conformity with the directions issued by the 
makers of the apparatus. In certain forms, for ex¬ 
ample, it is important to keep the controller handle 
on the last contact point, after the machine has been 
brought up to speed, while in other forms it is per¬ 
missible to keep the handle at other points, accord¬ 
ing to the speed desired. In every case, however, 
the operator should avoid advancing the handle too 


HOISTING 


27 


rapidly in starting the motor, not only because there 
is danger of burning out the coils if this precaution is 
neglected, but also because a too sudden start may 
cause severe mechanical strains to be thrown on 
various parts of the hoisting mechanism. A suitable 
fuse or automatic circuit breaker is essential to the 
safe operation of an electric hoist, and one or other 
of these devices should be provided in every case, and 
adjusted to act at not more than 50 per cent, overload. 

Solenoid brakes form a desirable feature of the 
equipment of an electric hoist, because they provide 
an additional safeguard and are well worth the extra 
expense of installation. These brakes are applied 
to the armature shaft and operate automatically, but 
gradually, when the current fails for any reason, and 
also when the hoist is stopped. 

Install switches and fuses of the inclosed type 
whenever possible, and do not permit the use of copper 
wire in place of proper fuses. See that all switch¬ 
boards are railed off so that no unauthorized persons 
can get at them, and place rubber mats or coverings 
of other good non-conducting material in front of the 
switchboards for the operators to stand on. 

The power is transmitted to the winding drums of 
some types of electric hoists by means of sprocket wheels 
and chains, and these should be entirely inclosed or 
otherwise effectively guarded, to prevent the hands 
or clothing of the operators from being caught. 

23. Signaling Systems. It is important, in con¬ 
nection with hoisting, to have a signaling system that 
will be positive and reliable, under all circumstances. 
The system in which the signals are given by sounding 
either one or two strokes on the engineer’s bell may be 


28 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 10. The Signal Cords are Here Inclosed in Iron 

Pipes. 

(The two 2-inch pipes shown in the center of this engraving extended from the hoisting engine 
to the erecting floor, and the signal cords were run through them. This method of protect¬ 
ing the cords is strongly recommended.) 


replaced with advantage by the more modern one of 
using three different signals,—two strokes of the 
bell signifying to hoist, three strokes to lower, and one 
to stop. This code has the advantage of being per¬ 
fectly definite. It also avoids the danger of giving 









HOISTING 


29 


a starting signal by the accidental fouling of the 
signal rope, since one stroke of the bell, on this sys¬ 
tem, has no meaning to the engineer when the load is 
stationary. 



Fig. 11. Protection for the Signal Cords. 

(When it is not practicable to use pipes as shown in Fig. 10, a guard of this nature should be 
installed on every floor, where the signal cords are exposed. The framework should not be left 
open, however, but should be covered with close-meshed wire netting, or its equivalent, so that 

nobody can interfere with the cords.) 

In very noisy places bell signals may often be ad¬ 
vantageously replaced or supplemented by a system of 
electric lamps, the signals being given by using lamps 
of different colors instead of by sounding a number of 
strokes on a bell. 








30 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



24. Protection of Signal Cords. It is extremely 
important to guard the cords used for signaling to 
the hoisting engineer, in such a manner that nothing 
can accidentally strike them and cause the gong to 
ring. It is often possible to run them through suitably 
arranged two-inch pipes firmly secured in place and 


Fig. 12. An Approved Method for Protecting Lead 
Blocks and Cables. 

(The cables were boxed in where they ran along near the floor level, and the lead blocks were 
inclosed, as shown.) 

leading from the hoisting engine to the signalman’s 
station; or they may be boxed in on each floor to a 
height of not less than 7 feet above the floor. Cords 
with wire cores should be used for signaling. There 
should be no knots in them, and when it is necessary 
to lengthen them the ends should be carefully spliced, 




HOISTING 


31 


or smooth, strong connections made in some other 
way. Inspect the cords frequently for the purpose of 
discovering worn or frayed places in them, and splice 
in new lengths if any defective portions are found. The 
breaking of a signal cord at a critical moment may 
result in serious injury or extensive property damage. 

25. Hoisting Cables and Sheaves. It is equally 
important to guard the hoisting cables at all points 
where persons or materials might come in contact with 



Fig. 13. An Effective Guard for Hoisting Cables. 

(A similar guard, at least seven feet high, should be installed on every floor. The frame¬ 
work should be covered with wire mesh, however, so that the cables cannot be touched by hand.) 






32 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


them. When the cables pass along near the floor 
level they not only present a tripping hazard, but while 
they are in motion there is also danger that the clothing 
of passing workmen may be caught. The danger is 
greatly increased when two hoisting cables that run 
in opposite directions are placed close together. 

Provide suitable inclosures for all horizontal 
hoisting cables that are less than 7 feet above the floor 
level, and also inclose all vertical cables to a height of 
7 feet above each floor. Take special care to guard 
cables that cross over stairways, and over or through 
passageways, and near ladderways. Workmen carry¬ 
ing planks, boards, and other materials are likely to 
be injured by having their loads caught by the moving 
cables, unless efficient protection is provided. 

Take special precautions to prevent cables from 
chafing or rubbing against steelwork, floor tiles, and 
other objects. Cables that pass through floors com¬ 
posed of tile or concrete should be protected by wooden 
boxes about 8 inches square, set in the floors. 

Inspect all cables frequently and thoroughly, and 
replace any that are found to be dangerously worn 
or frayed, or partially broken. With hoisting appara¬ 
tus it is not always practicable to use sheaves as large 
as a proper regard for the relation between the size 
of the sheaves and the diameter of the cables would 
require, and the cables are therefore subject to bending 
strains much more severe than they would experience 
if the cables and sheaves were correctly proportioned. 
This results in shortening the useful life of the cables, 
and makes careful inspection exceedingly important. 

Blocks that were originally designed for use with 
manila ropes are sometimes used with wire cables. 


HOISTING 


33 



Fig. 14. An Unguarded Shaftway for a Material Hoist. 

(Note the absence of railings and other protective features about the opening. Bricks and 
other objects should not be left lying about near openings through which they may fall 

upon persons below.) 















34 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 15. An Unprotected Material Hoist and Shaftway. 

(The floor openings at the sides of the hoist should be covered over, and the shaftway and hoist 
should be guarded as indicated in paragraph 26 .) 












HOISTING 


35 


This is a bad practice, however, and should be pro¬ 
hibited, because the cables often do not fit the grooves 
in the sheaves, and both the sheaves and the cables 
are therefore subjected to undue wear. Blocks that 
are used to change the direction of the cables, and 
that are located near the floor or in other exposed 
places, should be inclosed or otherwise effectively 
guarded so that nothing can be drawn into them. 

Provide ample and suitable lubrication for all 
sheaves and pulleys, and see that they are properly 
aligned so that the cables will not run off. Whenever 
possible, the blocks should be equipped with self- 
lubricating cast-steel sheaves. Test all cast-iron sheaves 
and pulleys frequently with a hammer, to make sure 
that none of them are cracked or broken. 

26. Material Hoists. All material-hoist openings 
should preferably be tightly inclosed throughout their 
entire length, and the entrances to them at each floor 
should be protected by vertical-lift gates of ample 
height, which should always be kept in position. 
When this is not practicable, the sides of the shaftways 
not used for entrances should be inclosed at each 
floor to a height of not less than 8 feet, with strong 
wire netting having openings not greater than 1/2 
inch each way. These inclosures should be located at 
least 12 inches from the edges of the shaftway open¬ 
ings. The entrance sides should be protected by bar- 
guards of sound, strong wood, not less than 2 in. by 3 in. 
in section, placed at a height of 3 feet above the floor, 
and at least 12 inches from the edges of the openings. 
Each bar should be bolted to the hoist fencing at one 
end by a single bolt on which the bar may swing, and 
a hook or wooden button should be provided, to hold 


36 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



the bar up out of the way while loading or unloading 
the hoist. A slot should be provided at the opposite 
side of the hoist fencing, to receive the end of the bar 
when it is lowered to its normal position. 

Fences or barricades of slat construction are 
sometimes used for hoisting inclosures, but these are 
less desirable than the other forms of protection already 


Fig. 16. An Approved Type of Material-hoist Fencing. 

(This is composed of substantial wire netting, with a half-inch mesh. The engraving shows the 
adjustable bars, placed at a safe distance from the edges of the shaftway, and also, though 
not very clearly, the wooden buttons for holding the bars in an upright position while loading 
the hoists.) 

described, because there is danger that small objects 
may fall between the slats. If inclosures of this 
kind are used, the slats should be spaced not more than 
4 inches apart, and the fences should extend to a height 
of at least 8 feet above the floors. Bar-guards should 
be provided, similar to those recommended for use 
with the wire-mesh barricades. 








HOISTING 


37 


The guide rails of the hoists should be kept rigid 
and in correct position at all times. This is a point 
to which proper attention is seldom given, and yet it 
is most important. 

Install protective coverings above the overhead 
work of all material hoists, to prevent objects from 
falling down the shafts,—these coverings to be removed 



Fig. 17. Overhead Covering for the Cage of a Material 

Hoist. 

(The cover is made in two parts, hinged together at the center so that they can be raised when 
long material must be transported. Note the toe-board and the bar-guards. The floor of the 
cage was also provided with blocks for the wheelbarrow legs, though the photograph does 
not show them satisfactorily.) 

and replaced whenever the increased height of the 
building necessitates changing the location of the 
overhead sheaves of the hoists. 

Also, install framed covers of planking or heavy 
wire mesh on the crossheads of all material hoists, 




38 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 18. Protective Covering for the Overhead-work of 
a Material Hoist. 











HOISTING 


39 



•, . » 


Fig. 19 . An Iron Stairway, Broken by a Falling Load 

of Material. 

(A load that was being hoisted through this stairway shaft fell and demolished the lower part 
of the flight here shown. A workman was standing on one of the upper steps at the time, 
but he fortunately escaped injury.) 



















40 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


to prevent falling objects from striking workmen when 
loading the hoists. These covers should be made in 
two sections, and each of them should be secured to the 
crosshead by hinges, so that either section or both may 
be raised when hoisting long material. 

When using a hoist for transporting long material, 
such as boards, planks, and pipes, the several pieces 
should be securely fastened together, and the whole 
made fast to the hoist in such a way that no part of 
the load can fall off, or project beyond the sides of 
the hoist and be caught. Heavy and massive materials, 
such as beams and building stones, should be hoisted 
outside of the buildings whenever this is feasible, and 
never through stairway openings. 

Provide suitable guides or blocks on all hoists 
upon which wheelbarrows are transported, to hold 
the barrows securely in place. 

The men should never be allowed to stand or ride 
on the material hoists; many serious accidents have 
resulted when this caution has been neglected. Con¬ 
tractors and foremen should refrain from riding upon 
the hoists, because it is easy to set a bad example to 
the laborers and others, who cannot see any sufficient 
reason why they should not ride, if their superiors con¬ 
sider it safe to do so. 

27. Passenger Hoists. In all buildings in which 
permanent passenger elevators are to be installed, 
special hoists should be provided as soon as possible, 
for the use of the workmen in the building. This 
will tend to prevent the workmen from riding on 
material hoists, and will also save considerable time 
that would otherwise be spent by the men in climbing 
ladders and stairs to reach their work. The number of 


HOISTING 


41 


stories to which the construction may advantageously 
be carried before passenger hoists are installed will de¬ 
pend largely upon the height that the finished building 
is to have. There should be no difficulty in deciding 
this point in any given case. 

A regular operator should be provided for each 
passenger hoist, and an adequate and effective signal- 



Fig. 20. An Approved Method for Protecting a Passenger 
Hoist Shaftway. 






























42 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


ing system should be installed. The maximum number 
of persons that may safely ride on a hoist should 
be determined in each case and specified upon a sign 
posted conspicuously in the cage; and no greater 
number than this specified limit should be permitted 
to step into the cage, under any circumstances. 

Except on the sides used for entrance, the cages of 
all passenger hoists should be completely inclosed to a 
height of at least six feet, and preferably up to the level 
of the crossheads; and they should also be covered over 
on top. The hoistways should also be inclosed, and 
gates should be installed at the entrances on each floor. 

Every hoist should also have an effective safety 
device that will prevent the cage from falling in case 
the cable or any other essential part of the mechanism 
should break. 

28. Slings. These form an important part of 
the hoisting equipment in building construction, and 
every precaution should be taken to see that they are 
kept in first-class condition. Wire cables, chains, and 
manila ropes are all used for slings, their relative 
strengths, for similar diameters, varying in the order 
in which they are here named. For many reasons 
aside from its strength, a wire-cable sling is to be 
preferred to a chain or to a fiber rope of any kind. 
Ordinarily, deterioration is easily detected in wire 
cables, as it is commonly indicated by broken strands 
that are readily discoverable by an experienced and 
qualified inspector. Chains, on the other hand, may 
sometimes be used almost up to the moment of failure 
with no manifest external evidence of weakness other 
than the existence of a few seemingly unimportant 
bruises, although a careful microscopic examination 


HOISTING 


43 


will often disclose a multitude of small cracks, show¬ 
ing that the metal has become either “fatigued’’ or 
strained beyond its yield-point by the severe stresses to 
which it has been subjected. 

Wire-cable slings, on account of their pliability, 
are often bent at very sharp angles, not only while 
being adjusted to their loads, but also when they are 
under strain. Sharp bends of this kind should always 
be carefully avoided, not only because they are imme¬ 
diately dangerous, but also because, when taken in 
connection with the twisting and untwisting to which 
the strands of the cable are subject while in use, they 
cause rapid deterioration of the sling. In making a 
thorough inspection of a wire-cable sling it is advisable 
to clamp the sling in two places, and partially untwist 
the intervening section so that the interior wires can 
be seen and examined. 

In placing a sling about a load, it is important to 
see that the turns of the sling do not lie one over 
another, because an excessive strain is likely to be 
thrown upon one of them unless careful attention is 
given to this point. A sling composed of a single 
length of wire cable, with spliced eyes, should never 
be used for hoisting a heavy load by hooking into only 
one of the eyes, because if this is done there will be a 
tendency for the load to revolve, thus unwinding the 
cable and permitting the splice to slip. On the other 
hand, when using a doubled sling with both ends 
engaged in the hoisting hook, it is important to adjust 
the sling so as to equalize the stress as well as pos¬ 
sible, and prevent it from becoming unduly concen¬ 
trated in certain parts. 

When placing chain slings about loads, carefully 


44 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


avoid twisting the chains, because if they are twisted 
an excessive load may be thrown upon some of the 
links. 

All slings should be kept in good condition. To 
prevent rusting, chain slings should be frequently 
oiled, and slings made of wire rope should be treated 
with oil at proper intervals, or preferably with special 
protective dressings prepared for this purpose. The 
inner wires often become corroded through exposure 
to the weather, even when the outer ones remain in 
comparatively good condition. 

The stresses that are thrown upon slings and ropes 
vary a great deal with conditions, and they are often 
influenced to a marked degree by circumstances which 
the casual observer might consider trivial and unim¬ 
portant. In particular, the inclination or obliquity 
of the sling, in those parts which lie between the 
supporting hook and the points at which the sling 
first touches the load, must be carefully considered, 
because this is a highly important feature in connec¬ 
tion with safety. None of these parts should make an 
angle of less than 45 degrees with the horizontal. 

When the load to be lifted has sharp corners or 
edges, as is often the case with structural steel and 
other similar objects, pads or wooden protective 
pieces should be applied at these corners, or slings 
with protective coverings should be used, to prevent 
the slings from being abraded or otherwise damaged 
where they come in contact with the load. This is 
especially important when the slings consist of wire 
cable or fiber rope, though it should also be done 
even when they are made of chain. If pads of burlap 
or other soft material are used, they should be thick 


HOISTING 


45 


and heavy enough to sustain the pressure well, and to 
distribute it over a considerable area, instead of 
allowing it to be concentrated directly at the edges 
of the object to be lifted. Precautions of this kind are 
often neglected in the United States, but they receive 
attention in European practice, and it is to be hoped 
that their importance will soon be more widely admitted 
in this country. 

So far as weight is concerned, loads might often 
be safely hoisted by the use of single-part wire-cable 
slings; but in handling structural steel it is customary 
to use two-part, or “ bridle ” slings, so that the loads 
may be properly balanced, and hoisted in a horizontal 
position. Bridle toggle-slings are also used for similar 
work, and toggle column slings are often used for 
hoisting and setting steel columns. When toggle 
slings are employed it is not necessary for a man to 
climb up a column or go into other dangerous ele¬ 
vated positions to release the slings, because they can 
be detached by a man standing upon the ground or 
the floor. 

It is advisable to have two complete sets of slings 
of various sizes constantly on hand, and all slings 
that are not in use should be stored in a place specially 
provided for them, and locked up. They should be 
in charge of an experienced man, who should be held 
responsible for their condition. The man charged 
with the care of the slings should give them out as 
they are needed, and always with due regard to the 
use to which they are to be put. In this way it is 
possible to guard effectively against the use of slings 
of inadequate strength. All slings should be promptly 
returned to the official custodian, when they are no 


46 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


longer needed for the work for which they were given 
out. As an additional precaution, every sling should 
be provided with a small metal identification tag, which 
should be firmly fastened to it. The tag should give 
the maximum stress that the sling can safely withstand 
in use, and in the case of a chain sling it should also 
give the date of the latest annealing. 

More detailed information with regard to slings 
has been published in The Travelers Standard 
for July, 1914, copies of which will be mailed upon 
request. 


V. DERRICKS. 


29. Types. The derricks that are most commonly 
used in building construction are of the stiff-leg, guy, 
and breast or house types. Some of these types are 
subject to slight modifications, and they may then be 
known by different names; but the general classifica¬ 
tion here given is comprehensive enough for ordinary 
purposes. Each type may be arranged to be operated 
either by hand or by mechanical means,—the method 
of operating usually being determined by the weight 
and quantity of the material to be handled. 

30. Stiff-leg Derricks. These are usually em¬ 
ployed in excavating for building foundations and for 
doing other work at or near the ground level, although 
they are also used to some extent in the more advanced 
stages of building construction. It is particularly 
important to see that the timbers that are used in 
stiff-leg derricks are sound and of adequate size for 
the work to be performed, and that the several mem¬ 
bers are properly jointed and fitted. Selected Oregon 
fir or yellow pine are most suitable for derrick con¬ 
struction. All irons, such as the goose-necks, and the 
connection plates at the heels of the stiff legs, should 
be of the proper sizes. All bolts should be of the best 
material, and provided with adequate heads and a 
sufficient number of threads. Washers should be 
placed on both ends of the bolts, and the nuts should 
be drawn up tightly. Lock-washers or jam nuts 


48 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 21. Diagram of a Guy Derrick. 

(This is simply a diagram for the purpose of showing the names of the various parts of a guy 
derrick, and is in no respect a design for a derrick. For convenience, only one guy rope is 
shown, but in practice there should be at least six, as described on page 55. The boom should 
fit loosely in its seat, and the pin in the boom seat should never be omitted.) 




































DERRICKS 


49 



Fig. 22. Diagram of a Stiff-leg Derrick. 


(See the foot-note on page 48, in connection with the diagram for a guy derrick. For a further 
description of stiff-leg derricks refer to page 47.) 

































50 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


should be used, to prevent the nuts from working loose, 
or the same object may be attained by checking the 
threads on the bolts after the nuts have been tightened. 
The pins securing the connection plates to the bed sills 
should be of adequate size, and fitted with cotter pins 
at both ends. Inspections often show that the con¬ 
nection-plate pins have been lost, and that ordinary 
bolts, frequently of too small a size, have been sub¬ 
stituted. Such a practice should be prohibited. 

See that the goose-necks are fitted to the stiff- 
legs in a proper manner, so that there will be no undue 
friction on the gudgeon pin. If the goose-necks are 
improperly fitted, or the heels of the stiff-legs are 
incorrectly set on the bed sills, the holes in the goose-, 
necks will be worn into an elliptical shape, making it 
more difficult to handle the derrick, and also causing 
it to jar when the boom is swung around. Further¬ 
more, it is quite possible that the gudgeon pin will 
become so worn that it will fracture and cause an 
accident. A collar should be placed on the gudgeon 
pin, above the goose-necks, and a hole should be drilled 
through this collar and the gudgeon pin, through which 
a bolt should be passed to hold the collar in position. 

See that all of the derrick sheaves are of suitable 
size, that they are secured in place by pins of the 
proper diameter, and that cotters are placed in both 
ends of every pin. Pay particular attention to the 
recess for the sheaves at the end of the boom, because 
if this is too wide the sheaves will wabble or work 
along on the pin, and this may cause the cables to 
run off the sheaves. If the recess is found to be too 
large, place filler plates on both sides of the sheaves, to 
make them run true. 


DERRICKS 


51 


Give particular attention to the weighting of 
stiff-leg derricks, because this is an item of extreme 
importance. The necessary weight should be calcu¬ 
lated by a competent engineer, in every case The 
material used for the weighting should always be in¬ 
closed in well-constructed boxes, so that the weights 
will remain in the proper position and will not be dis¬ 
lodged or shifted about by the vibration of the derricks, 
or in any other way. 

31. Guy Derricks. Derricks of this type are used 
in nearly all of the operations of building construction, 
and they are made both of timber and of latticed steel. 
All the guys should be of good, sound galvanized wire 
of ample strength, and eyes should be formed in them, 
at the masthead end, by bending back the ends of the 
cables and clamping the ends with at least three 
clamps specially designed for the purpose. Place 
thimbles in these eyes, in all cases, to prevent chafing 
the cables. Secure the guys to the guy plates by means 
of shackles, and place cotters in the ends of the shackle 
pins. Collars should be secured in place above the 
guy plates in the same manner as recommended for 
stiff-leg derricks. 

The way in which guy derricks are anchored will 
naturally depend upon the location and upon the 
conditions under which the work is done. When logs 
buried in the ground (commonly called “dead-men” 
or “dead-logs”) are used for anchorage, they should 
be placed at a suitable depth, in trenches. After the 
trenches are filled they should be planked over and 
additional weight placed upon them. The weights 
used for this purpose should preferably consist of well- 
constructed boxes filled with sand, earth, or stone. 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 23. A Typical Hoisting Tower. 















DERRICKS 


53 



The dead-men should be of ample size, and of strong, 
sound timber. Old blasting logs or limbs of trees are 
sometimes used, but these should never be trusted 
unless they have been thoroughly inspected before 
being put in the ground. Inclined trenches should be 
excavated leading to the dead-men, so that the guys 
may be placed properly about the centers of the logs, 
and so that each guy will pull upon its anchorage in 
as straight a line as possible. 

In building construction guy derricks are mainly 
used for erecting and setting steel, and when they are 
so employed they must be guyed by some method 


Fig. 24. Wire-cable Slings Installed for Anchoring 
Derrick Guys. 

(Owing to the position of the camera, the apparent steepness of the inclination of the nearest 
guy is much exaggerated in the photograph. Wire-rope slings are far better and safer for 
this purpose than chains.) 




54 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 25. An Approved Method for Anchoring Derrick 

Foot-blocks. 

(Cables.are passed around the foot-blocks, as shown. They are then crossed, and their ends 
are made fast to four of the steel columns of the building. For further security clips are placed 
at the points where the cables cross, as indicated by the arrows. This arrangement prevents 
the foot-blocks from moving in any direction.) 










DERRICKS 


55 


other than the one described above. Each derrick 
mast should be provided with at least six equally- 
spaced guys, and each of these guys should be anchored, 
by a wire-cable anchor sling, to the columns of the 
building in course of erection. The bay in which the 
derrick is to be erected should be fully bolted 
or (which is far better) fully riveted, and four heavy 
timbers, each 12 in. by 12 in., or 12 in. by 16 in., 
should be placed beneath the foot-blocks of the der¬ 
rick. These timbers should be long enough to extend 
the entire length of the bay, or from one row of col¬ 
umns to the next. Supporting bents framed of heavy 
timbers should be placed beneath the floor system on 
which the derrick rests, unless the construction is 
unusually strong. When the span is ten feet or less, 
and 12-inch or 15-inch beams are used, it may not be 
necessary to use bents. With a fifteen-foot span and 
12-inch or 15-inch beams, one bent, on the floor imme¬ 
diately below the derrick, should be used. With a 
fifteen-foot span and beams having a depth of 10 
inches or less, supporting bents should be placed 
beneath the derrick on two floors. Each bent should 
be fastened to the floor immediately above it by 
means of ropes, and should be made to bear tightly 
against the beams overhead by driving in double 
wedges, which should be toe-nailed, or secured in 
some other manner, so that they cannot work loose and 
fall out. 

When derricks are being raised from one floor to 
another, the work should be done with great care. 
The boom is commonly used as a gin pole in this 
operation, and it should be securely lashed to the 
steelwork on the uppermost floor, and also at the foot. 


56 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 26. Another View of the Fastening Shown in Fig. 25. 











DERRICKS 


57 


It should also be properly guyed. Some contractors 
omit the guys, but that is bad practice because the 
guys add greatly to the safety of the operation. The 
foot-blocks should be properly secured, either by 
timbers or by wire cables; and if cables are used 
they should be drawn tight by means of steamboat 
ratchets. Turnbuckles are often used in place of 
steamboat ratchets, but we do not recommend them 
because the workmen tighten up the turnbuckles by 
means of bolts or bars, which are often left in position 
and forgotten,—the result being that they frequently 
fall out and drop to the lower floors. 

Before raising the derrick mast a block and fall 
should be secured to its lower end, and the line paid 
out as the mast is raised. In this way the mast is 
kept plumb, and is prevented from striking against 
the steelwork as it is raised. A single hemp line is 
sometimes used instead of the block and fall, but the 
method we have described is considerably safer and 
more satisfactory in every way. 

When raising derricks it is bad practice to take a 
turn of a hemp rope around a steel beam or column, 
because there is danger that the rope will be cut by 
the corners of the steel members. It is far safer to 
lash a heavy timber to the floor beams, to be used for 
such a purpose. 

32. Breast or House Derricks. In building con¬ 
struction, derricks of this type are principally used for 
setting stone. They are usually operated by hand, 
and as a rule are not equipped with brakes. Mechan¬ 
ical brakes can easily be provided, however, and this 
should be done in every case. The usual method for 
braking a breast derrick, when no mechanical brake 


58 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 27. A Breast Derrick with Unprotected Gears. 

(The gears of breast derricks could be guarded very easily, and mechanical brakes could also 
be provided with but little trouble. Attention is also called to the dangerous holes just 

in front of this derrick.) 





























DERRICKS 


59 


is provided, is by means of a ‘‘bull-tail.” This con¬ 
sists merely of a length of rope, which is wrapped about 
the shaft several times; one end is then secured to the 
frame of the derrick, the other end, or “tail,” being held 
by a workman when lowering a load. By pulling upon 
the rope sufficient friction may be brought upon the 
shaft to stop and hold loads of considerable weight. 
The most efficient bull-tail is made by separating the 
strands of a 3-strand rope, and braiding them together 
so as to form a flat surface to bear against the shaft. 
The men sometimes have their hands and fingers 
crushed when using these bull-tails, and the rope some¬ 
times breaks and allows the load to drop. For these 
reasons, among others, we strongly prefer special 
mechanical brakes, as already explained. 

A hole should be drilled in each end of the gear 
shaft, outside of the corresponding handle or operating 
lever, and a cotter pin should be placed in each hole 
so that the handle cannot work off from the shaft. 
Accidents often result from neglect of this precaution. 
Nails, pieces of wire, and other similar objects are some¬ 
times used in place of cotter pins, but this should 
never be allowed. When lowering loads the handles 
should always be removed, so that no one can be 
struck by them. 

As a rule, breast derricks are guyed from only one 
direction, and under ordinary circumstances this 
would be sufficient. When moving the derricks, how¬ 
ever, they are straightened up, and are then likely to 
tip over backward; and the same trouble will occur 
if a heavy object should drop on the guys, or if the 
hoisting rope should suddenly break while raising a 
load. To guard against a possibility of this kind, 


60 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 28. A Row of Breast Derricks Used for Setting Stone. 

(These derricks are guyed from the front as well as from the back, as required by good practice. 
Gear guards and mechanical brakes are lacking, however.) 

a front or head guy should be secured to the derrick 
and to some fixed object on the floor above. If there 
is no higher floor, the derrick should be made secure 
against falling backward by some other method. 

All breast derricks should be set on heavy planks 
or timbers, of sufficient length to extend from one 
girder or floor beam to another. They should never 
be allowed to rest directly upon floor arches,—this 
counsel being specially important when the arches are 
newly laid. The base of each derrick should be secured 
in a suitable manner by means of ropes or cables, or 
by timber bracing, so that it cannot become displaced. 

33. General Precautions in the Use of Derricks. 
When leaving the work, either for the night or at any 











DERRICKS 


61 


other time, it is advisable to lay the derrick booms 
down, if possible, or to “top them up” (that is, raise 
them into a vertical position). This will prevent the 
booms from swinging about and fouling cables or doing 
other damage, in case of high winds. They should also 
be secured by guys or otherwise, if the conditions are 
such that this appears to be necessary or desirable. At 
least as often as every other day, all parts of every 
derrick should be inspected, and the moving parts 
thoroughly lubricated. Special attention should be 
given to the gudgeon pin at the mast head, and to the 
bearing at the foot of the mast, for these will wear 
rapidly if allowed to run dry. Every derrick should be 
equipped with adequate and effective mechanical brakes, 
and the brakes should be tested frequently to make sure 
that they are in good order. All hand-operated derricks 
should also have suitable ratchets and pawls. The 
loads should be lowered slowly, and never at a rate of 
speed exceeding the hoisting speed; when depositing 
the loads special care should be taken to avoid shocks 
and jars. Provide substantial and effective guards for 
all exposed gears, and for all projecting set-screws, 
keys, and other dangerous moving parts. 


VI. SCAFFOLDS. 


34. Introductory. Only a few general sugges¬ 
tions with regard to scaffolds can be given in this 
place, because many different types are used, and there 
is so much to be said about them that an entire volume 
would be required to treat the subject adequately. 
The Engineering and Inspection Division of The 
Travelers Insurance Company has made a special 
study of scaffolds, however, and has published a large,, 
special treatise on the subject. It has also published 
a small booklet for general circulation, copies of which 
will be gladly furnished upon request. 

35. Pole Scaffolds. Pole scaffolds are often 
built of utterly unsuitable material, and erected in 
defiance of constructive principles that would be 
considered supremely important in a permanent struc¬ 
ture. Great care should be given to their design and 
construction, and a plentiful amount of first-class 
lumber should be used in erecting them. 

36. Suspended Scaffolds. As a rule, the swing¬ 
ing scaffolds that are used for bricklaying and similar 
work, and that are supported by steel cables from the 
framework of the building under construction, are 
much safer than pole scaffolds when the work must be 
carried up to a considerable height; but they should be 
inspected, thoroughly and carefully, every time they 
are used, and at suitable intervals while they are in 
use, and nothing should be taken for granted about 


SCAFFOLDS 


63 



Fig. 29. One of the Hazards Connected with the Use 
of Suspended Scaffolds in Building Operations. 

them. Every bolt and nut should be examined, and 
the cables and their fastenings should be inspected 
with special care. 

37. Horse Scaffolds. These are used for many 
purposes, both in demolition and in construction work. 
They should always be of substantial construction, 
and should rest upon a firm and level foundation. 
They should never be erected so that they rest upon 
beams alone, but should always stand upon solid floors. 
If the permanent floor-covering has not been installed, 
a temporary layer of planks should be placed upon the 
beams to support the horses. Sound, strong material 
should be used when extending the legs of horse scaf- 












64 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


folds. The work should be carefully done, and the 
legs should be braced near the joints to stiffen them. 
It is always far better, however, to use horses of special 
construction, rather than to extend the legs of existing 
ones for the purpose of attaining the necessary height. 
Piles of brick, stone, or other loose material should 
never be used by the workmen in place of scaffolds 
or platforms, nor should scaffolds, platforms, or horses 
rest upon such piles, or be supported by them. 

38. Riveters’ Scaffolds. The scaffolds used by 
riveters are moved about so frequently that it is 
hardly feasible to safeguard them as completely as 
other types. Guard-rails should be provided whenever 
practicable, however, and every other precaution, 
should be taken to avoid accidents. Only sound, 
strong planks should be used for the platforms, and 
they should be laid so that they cannot tip or slide. 
Special care should be exercised in selecting the needle- 
beams for scaffolds of this kind, and they should be 
inspected frequently to make sure that they are in 
good condition. 

When it is necessary to use a scaffold of this 
nature in such a position that one needle-beam is 
considerably higher than the other one, the planks 
should be provided with cleats to insure a good foot¬ 
hold for the men, and each plank should also be pierced, 
about one foot from each end , with a hole about 
5/8 of an inch in diameter, through which a loosely- 
fitting bolt should be passed. These bolts should be 
provided with nuts so they cannot drop out when the 
planks are turned over, and in laying the platform of 
the scaffold the bolts should come outside of the 
needle-beams in all cases. 


SCAFFOLDS 


65 


A riveters’ scaffold, when used near the line of a 
public street or other thoroughfare, should be pro¬ 
vided with a wire-mesh screen arranged so that if 
the man on the scaffold fails to catch a rivet the 
screen will stop it and prevent it from falling into the 
street. 

39. Painters’ Scaffolds. The light, swinging 
scaffolds that are used for painting should preferably 
be secured to the building at all times, so that they 
cannot swing materially in any direction; and they 
should always be lowered to the ground, or lashed, 
when leaving the work for the night. All tools and 



Fig. 30. A Dangerous Method of Supporting a Horse 
Scaffold. 

(The horses should always rest solidly upon the floor, and should never be blocked up in this 
way, upon tiles or other insecure objects. The floor conditions here shown are also unsatis¬ 
factory. Waste material should never be allowed to accumulate in such large quantities.) 










66 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


materials should likewise be removed from such 
scaffolds when the men are not at work upon them. 

Painters’ scaffolds and other light, swinging scaf¬ 
folds that are supported by ropes, should be carefully 
tested, immediately before using, by raising them a 
foot or so from the ground and loading them with 
a weight at least four times as great as the maximum 
load they may have to support while in use. The 
ropes of all such scaffolds should also be carefully 
protected from contact with acids and other chemicals, 
and they should be tested from time to time to see 
that their strength remains unimpaired. 

40. In General. Except in certain special cases 
where the working conditions make the adoption of such 
safeguards impracticable, scaffolds should be provided 
with hand-rails, and also with toe-boards to prevent ma¬ 
terials or tools from falling over the edge of the plat¬ 
form. In addition, wire-mesh side screens are strongly 
recommended; and whenever scaffolds are located so 
that there is a considerable height over them from 
which materials and tools might be dropped, they 
should also be provided with efficient overhead guards 
of planking, wire netting, or some other effective sub¬ 
stitute. It is common indeed to see the hand-rails, 
toe-boards, side screens, and overhead protection 
entirely omitted from scaffolds, and many of the 
scaffold accidents that occur are due to these omissions. 

The planks forming the platforms of scaffolds 
vshould be laid tightly together, so that there will be 
no chance for tools or materials to fall down between 
them. The planks or boards forming the platforms 
should also be placed so that they cannot tip up 
under the weight of a workman, at any point whatever. 


SCAFFOLDS 


67 


Scaffold platforms should not be used for the 
storage of materials, except such as are immediately 
required by the workmen; and they should be kept 
as free as possible from obstructions, so that the work- 



Fig. 31. A Study in Dangerous Scaffolding. 

(This scaffold is constructed in an ingenious way, but its only other merit is that it is bad 
enough to be interesting as well as dangerous, the main platform, which can be seen at the 
top of the picture, was about 35 feet above the ground. Note the bend in the plank supporting 

the upper barrels.) 








68 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


men may move about upon them in safety. Accumu¬ 
lations of snow and ice should be promptly removed, 
and when the platforms become slippery they should 
be liberally sprinkled with sand or ashes. 

If heavy stonework must be handled on scaffolds, 
extra reinforcement should be provided wherever neces¬ 
sary, to make the scaffolds safe under the unusual loads. 

Men should preferably be kept away from places 
directly under scaffolds, whether these are outside or 
inside of the building. Under some conditions, how¬ 
ever, this course is impracticable; and when men must 
work on or beneath scaffolds where there is danger 
from falling objects (as, for example, in elevator shaft- 
ways, ventilating shafts, and other similar places) 
substantial protective coverings should be installed 
above or below the scaffolds, as may be necessary, 
to guard all the exposed men against injury. 

Doorways and passageways, where men have to 
pass under a scaffold or under some other place where 
construction work is going on, should be effectively 
covered with roofs or sheds. Mortar beds are often 
placed almost immediately under scaffolds. If they 
cannot be placed elsewhere, they should be protected 
by substantial roofs. 

In building a scaffold of any kind, always use 
strong, first-class material, and plenty of it. Further¬ 
more, be sure the scaffold is rigid as well as strong, so 
that it will not yield or shake when the men move 
about upon it, nor when portions of the load that it has 
to support are shifted; and never intrust the building 
of such a structure to anybody but a responsible man 
who knows what ought to be done, and who is willing 
to do it. 


SCAFFOLDS 


69 


Every man who has to make use of a scaffold 
should be required to satisfy himself of its safety 
before he ventures out upon it. 

All scaffolds, stagings, and other similar temporary 
structures should be removed as soon as the need for 
them ceases to exist. 


VII. LADDERS, STAIRWAYS, AND RUNWAYS. 


41. Ladders. As fast as the work progresses, 
safe means should be provided to give access to all 
points in the building. For this purpose numerous lad¬ 
ders are necessary, and as too little attention is given, 
in general practice, to making them strong and sub¬ 
stantial, many accidents result. Ladder manufacturers 
are giving increased attention to this matter, but crude 
ladders are often made up by the men on the job from 
any material that is at hand,—cross-pieces being nailed, 
to a pair of stringers of the necessary length, with little 
regard to the proper strength and spacing of the cross¬ 
pieces, or the ultimate safety of the finished structure. 
The stringers and rungs are often rough and full of 
slivers and splinters, and projecting nails are also 
common. The workmen have to go up and down these 
ladders many times a day, and they are subjected to 
great and wholly needless danger because of the poor 
construction. 

Every ladder should be strong and substantial, 
composed of the best materials obtainable, and con¬ 
structed with great care. The stringers should be of 
spruce, Oregon fir, or selected yellow pine, and the 
rungs or cross-pieces should be of oak, white ash, 
maple, or hickory. Special attention should be given 
to all ladders that are used for connecting the various 
floor levels prior to the installation of the regular 
stairways. These ladders should be set in place 


LADDERS, STAIRWAYS, AND RUNWAYS 


71 



Fig. 32. A Poorly-constructed Ladder. 

(Similar ladders are often found on construction jobs, and they cause many accidents. In 
this case the danger was also increased by maintaining a bright, open fire dose to the 

foot of the ladder.) 







72 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


immediately after each rise of the derrick, and they 
should not be removed until the stairways are in 
proper condition for use. On large construction jobs, 
ladders used for this purpose may be made double 
the width of an ordinary ladder, with an extra stringer 
in the center. Preferably, however, there should be 
two separate ladders, side by side,—one to be used for 
ascending and the other for descending. Provide 
suitable landing platforms at the upper and lower ends 
of these ladders, and at all other points where the 
workmen must step on or off them; and see that 
each ladder is long enough to extend at least 5 feet 
above the highest platform, to enable the workmen 
to grasp it firmly before descending. In installing a 
ladder for any purpose, it is advisable to have one of 
its rungs come flush with the platform to which the 
ladder leads. When this is not practicable, care should 
be taken to have the rung that is nearest the platform 
stand two or three inches above it, rather than below 
it, because a better footing can be had in this way. 

See that every ladder is securely fastened both at 
the top and at the bottom, so that it cannot move in 
any direction; and if necessary, it should also be 
braced at the middle of its length to prevent it from 
swaying, bending, or shaking. Do not permit tools 
or other objects to be left upon the landing platforms. 

Take care to place all portable ladders on a firm 
and level foundation, and see that they are so placed 
that they can neither tip over, nor slide sidewise, nor 
slip at the bottom. Ladders should be equipped with 
safety pads or shoes, or with spurs, whenever they 
rest upon any material on which they are likely to 
slip. The shoes may be made of some abrasive sub- 


LADDERS, STAIRWAYS, AND RUNWAYS 


73 


stance, or of rubber or other suitable material. Sharp 
metallic spurs are effective when the ladder rests upon 
a surface that these spurs can penetrate. Inspect 
all ladders frequently, replace all worn or missing 
rungs, and make all other repairs that may be necessary. 

Ladders up which materials are to be transported 
should not be more than 30 or 35 feet in length. If 
it is necessary to proceed to a greater height than this, 
two or more separate ladders should be used; but in 
such a case the successive ladders should not come 
one over another, and no one of them should extend 
over a place where men are at work, nor over any 
passageway. If such an arrangement is impracticable, 
each ladder should be sheathed underneath in such a 
way that objects falling from it will be arrested by the 
sheathing, and prevented from falling upon the ladders 
or workplaces below,—the sheathing being placed far 
enough from the under surface of the ladder to insure 
a good foothold for the men, upon the rungs. Helpers 
carrying material in hods or otherwise should be 
instructed not to go upon a ladder when another man 
is already upon it. Serious accidents frequently 
occur when this precaution is neglected, because it is 
not uncommon, when two men are using a ladder at 
the same time, for the upper one to fall or to drop his 
load or some part of it, thereby knocking the lower 
man from the ladder. It is best to have at least two 
ladderways, one to be used exclusively by men going 
up, and the other exclusively by men going down. 
When this plan is in force it is easier to make the men 
go up one at a time; because when a single ladderway 
is used for travel in both directions, they naturally 
form the habit of ascending with their loads, in gangs 


74 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


or groups of three, four, or five, in order to avoid con¬ 
fusion and delay through meeting others who wish to 
come down. 

Workmen using ladders should not be permitted 
to carry loads that will interfere with the free use of 
both hands for holding on to the side-bars. Sliding 
down ladders should be forbidden, and the men should 
always face a ladder when ascending or descending it. 

Except in case of real necessity, ladders should 
never be extended by joining two of them together. 
It is far better, whenever practicable, to arrange them 
in single lengths with a landing platform at the top 
of each ladder. Whenever it becomes necessary, for 
any reason, to join ladders together, the operation 
should be performed with great care, by a person skilled 
in the work; and the joint should be solidly braced 
and supported, so that no bending stress can be thrown 
upon it. 

42. Stairways. The stairways should be in¬ 
stalled as rapidly as the progress of the work will 
permit,—temporary stairways being installed in prefer¬ 
ence to ladders, whenever practicable. Stairway open¬ 
ings should be effectively guarded by toe-boards, and all 
treads, risers, and railings, whether permanent or tempo¬ 
rary, should be of sound, strong material, firmly secured 
in place. No openings should be left through which 
objects of any kind may fall, and the stairs should be 
kept free from bolts, nuts, rivets, small pieces of brick 
or tile, and other similar objects that might cause 
the men to fall. Storing material on stairways should 
be strictly prohibited, and every effort should be 
made to keep them free from obstructions of every 
kind, so that a safe passage will be assured. To 


LADDERS, STAIRWAYS, AND RUNWAYS 


75 


prevent falls that might be caused by tripping, install 
a suitable platform or landing wherever a riser at the 
top of the stairway projects above the floor arches or 
the temporary floor levels. Be sure that ample light 
is provided on all stairways during the entire working 
period. 

In demolishing buildings, stairs and stair railings 
should be left in place as long as possible, because they 
are in constant use and are much safer and more 
convenient than ordinary ladders. 

43. Runways. All runways should be substan¬ 
tially constructed, and effectively braced or otherwise 
supported, to prevent bending, swaying, or vibration. 
Single-plank runways for wheelbarrows should not be 
used. It is far better to make the runways at least 



Fig. 33. A Steep Single-plank Runway. 

(Below it. on all sides, are boards and miscellaneous pieces of lumber with projecting nails. 
In the background is a pile of fine, dry sand which was blown about by the wind, and 
often into the eyes of workmen in the vicinity.) 







76 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 34. Dangerous Conditions about a Runway. 

(The runway itself, which is marked with a white cross, does not show as clearly as could be 
wished; but the dangerous features are quite distinct. Observe, in particular, the poorly- 
constructed and unsafe platform, the large hole at the top of the runway, and the obstructions 
at the bottom of the runway.) 

three planks wide, because this gives a sufficient width 
for most purposes, and it also affords a good track for 
the wheel of the barrow, which then has a full plank 
for its support instead of having to travel along a 
crack, as is the case when two planks are used. Run¬ 
ways on which wheelbarrows or trucks have to pass 
one another should consist of from five to seven planks. 
All runways that are four feet or more above the 
ground should be provided with substantial hand-rails, 
and cleats should be nailed to them, whenever neces¬ 
sary, to afford a firm footing for the workmen. A 
clear space of moderate width, free from cleats, may 
be left in the center, if necessary, for the wheels of the 
barrows. Runways that are six feet or more above the 
ground should also have foot-boards along their sides. 












LADDERS, STAIRWAYS, AND RUNWAYS 


77 


See that all runways are kept free from projecting 
nails and screws, and also from slivers and splinters. 
If the planks of the runway are laid so that they lap 
over each other, a beveled piece of wood, running cross¬ 
wise with respect to the runway, should be fastened 
against the ends of the overlapping planks. The piece 
so used should be at least nine inches wide, and it should 
be of the same thickness as the planks on one side, and 
be thinned down nearly to an edge on the other side. 
If the planks of the runways are laid flush with one 
another for the purpose of avoiding overlapping, 
the supports upon which they abut must be of ample 
width to insure safety, and in such cases it is also 
important to nail the planks firmly to the cross-pieces 
upon which they rest. 


VIII. STEELWORKERS. 


44. Erecting Gangs. The work of erecting the 
steel framework of a large building is extremely hazard¬ 
ous, and there is little that can be done to safeguard 
the men in some of the operations. Dependence must 
mainly be placed, in such cases, upon the caution, skill, 
and good judgment of the men themselves. They 
should never be allowed to expose themselves to danger 
unnecessarily, nor to ride upon loads, nor on the hooks, 
cables, or slings of the hoisting apparatus, nor to slide 
down ropes or cables. Proper ladders should be used 
for giving access to the work, wherever possible, and 
the men should not climb up nor slide down on col¬ 
umns. Work should be discontinued during severe 
storms and high winds, and also when the steelwork 
is slippery from ice or frost; and the men should not 
be allowed to work in exposed places more than a 
reasonable number of hours, nor to become unduly 
fatigued. 

Steelworkers should avoid wearing shoes with the 
soles and heels nailed on, because nails are likely to 
cause the men to slip when walking about on the steel 
beams. Leather shoes with rubber soles and heels are 
recommended. It is an almost universal custom among 
steel-erectors to wear gloves while at their work, and 
many cuts and bruises on the hands are thus prevented. 
The gloves should not have stiff gauntlets, however, 
and it is better to avoid gauntlets altogether, because 


STEELWORKERS 


79 



Fig. 35. A Workman Taking Unnecessary Chances. 

(Photograph by Brown Brothers.) 

they may catch upon projections, and thereby cause 
the men to lose their balance. They may also catch 
upon tools that are lying about, and cause the tools 
to fall. 

45. The Immediate Riveting of Beams. When 
a new tier of beams is laid upon the upper ends of 
columns at any given stage of the construction, it is 
common practice to bolt the beams in position for the 
time being, and to do the final riveting later. In 
New York City at least half of the rivet holes are 
supposed to be filled with bolts, when the work is 
done in this way, and considerable time is required 
for setting these bolts in place and removing them 








80 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 36. Steel Men being Lifted to their Work. 

(This practice is dangerous, and wholly unnecessary. Many engineers consider it safer to 
raise the men in this way than to have them climb the columns; but the use of suitable ladders 

is far safer than either of these methods.) 












STEELWORKERS 


81 


again. It is better, for economy as well as for safety, 
to do away with most of this preliminary bolting, by 
riveting the beams to the columns as soon as they 
are set in position. Experience has proved that this 
is entirely practicable. In following this plan each 
of the newly-set beams is secured in place by two or 
three bolts at each end, according to its weight, and 
a gang of riveters immediately follows, to completely 
rivet up the entire top tier. The columns are then made 
plumb by means of sway cables, and when that has 
been done the riveting is completed on the sections 
below. By thus securing the beams solidly to the 
columns at the earliest practicable moment, greater 
safety is assured in case a beam or a derrick should 
fall. A falling derrick will bend a fully-riveted beam, 
but will usually be held by it; whereas a beam bolted 
in the ordinary way is likely to fail by the shearing 
of the bolts when a falling derrick strikes it, and 
in a case of this kind the derrick, and very likely 
the beam also, will probably crash down through 
several floors, and perhaps to the very basement. The 
suggested method eliminates something like 40 per 
cent, of the work of placing and removing bolts. It 
also saves the shifting of floor-planks to enable the 
men to get at the rivet-holes at a later stage of the 
work, and it has other advantages that will readily 
occur to the steelworker. 

46. Erecting Floors. Cover over the erecting 
floor tightly so that there will be no openings left 
through which tools, bolts, rivets, or other small 
objects may fall. The men should not leave drift pins, 
dollies, wrenches, or other objects lying on beams or 
in other elevated positions. (See also paragraph 52.) 


82 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


When leaving the work care should be taken to 
secure all objects, or to place them where they cannot be 
disturbed by the wind. Rivet-heating forges should re¬ 
ceive attention in this respect, and empty rivet kegs, paint 
pots, and other similar objects should be safely stowed. 

47. Rivet-heaters’ Platforms. Lack of care is 
often noticeable in the location and erection of the 
platforms for rivet-heaters’ forges. These platforms 
should be at least 13 feet long and 8 feet wide, should be 
provided with toe-boards, and should be located as near 
as possible to the point where the riveting is being done. 
The planks should also be laid closely together, so that 
nothing can fall between them. 

48. Throwing Rivets. Rivets should never be 
thrown across shaftways or toward the outside of a 
building. When riveting is being done on an outside 
wall the rivets should be passed by hand or should 
be thrown as nearly as possible in a direction parallel 
to the wall. Buckets with flaring sides are not recom¬ 
mended for catching rivets, because the rivets are more 
likely to bound out of them than out of buckets or 
cans with straight sides. Empty powder cans may 
often be had where building construction is being carried 
on, and these are recommended for catching the rivets. 
False bottoms of soft wood should be placed in them, 
to prevent the rivets from rebounding. It is often 
possible to pass rivets for considerable distances through 
suitably-arranged iron pipes, and this should be done, if 
feasible, whenever the forges are located some distance 
away from, and above, the place where the riveting is 
being done. (See also paragraph 38.) 

49. Pneumatic Hammers. The snaps and plung¬ 
ers of pneumatic riveting hammers sometimes drop out, 


STEELWORKERS 


83 


and they may even fly out with considerable force, 
and injure persons. To prevent this, one end of a 
piece of No. 8 annealed iron wire should be secured 
around the snap and the other end around the handle 
of the hammer, in such a way that there will be suffi¬ 
cient slack to permit the hammer to operate properly, 
but not enough to allow the snap to drop out of place. 

50. Care of Air Hose. Riveters should care¬ 
fully avoid allowing the air hose to become wrapped 
about their legs or other parts of their bodies, because 
it is likely to twist and turn, and may cause them to 
lose their balance and fall. The playing of so-called 
“practical jokes” with compressed air should be abso¬ 
lutely forbidden, because severe injuries are often 
caused in this way. 

51. Handling Structural Steel. Ropes should be 
attached to loads of structural steel that are being 
hoisted, by which workmen, stationed on the erecting 
floor or in other positions where good footing is obtain¬ 
able, may assist in guiding the loads to suitable rest¬ 
ing places. In this way it is possible to avoid, in large 
measure, the danger to which steelworkers are exposed 
when they have to push or pull the loads into position 
while standing on narrow beams, or in other places 
where the footing is insecure. 


IX. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS. 



52. Covering Floors. All openings in the floors 
should be either planked over, or substantially guarded 
with fences or with rails and toe-boards; and the 
unauthorized removal of planks that have been laid 
down to cover up openings should be absolutely pre¬ 
vented. It is of course necessary at times for sub¬ 
contractors’ gangs to remove temporary flooring and 


Fig. 37. Protective Plank Flooring in a Ventilating 
Shaft. 

(Note the material that has fallen from above and been caught by the covering.) 







GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


85 



Fig. 38. A Dangerous Floor-opening. 

(If a man coming through the doorway should heedlessly turn at once to his right, he would 
probably step into the opening and fall 15 feet to the basement floor. Guard-rails should always 
be installed about such openings, at the earliest practicable moment.) 



86 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 39. An Accident-source that is Frequently Over¬ 
looked. 

(The opening under the end of the runway should be boarded up, to prevent objects from 
passing through it and falling to the floors below.) 

guard-rails, but they should be required to replace 
every such safeguard as soon as the exigencies of the 
work will permit. Unfortunately, the workmen on 
construction jobs usually have but little regard for 
this precaution, and they often remove protective 
planks and put them to other uses, as soon as the 
safety-inspectors go to another floor. They do this, 
not maliciously, but merely because they do not under¬ 
stand the paramount importance of keeping the open¬ 
ings covered over. 

It is essential not only to cover up large openings 
in this way, but also to fill in small apertures about 











GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


87 



Fig. 40. An Unguarded Elevator Shaftway. 

(A workman fell into the shaftway at this point, and was killed.) 

columns, and all other similar places. Fragments of 
bricks, tools, small pieces of board, and other objects 
frequently fall through such openings and strike the 
men below. For this reason, also, the planks used for 
temporary flooring must be laid closely together, so 
that no small objects can fall between them. (See also 
paragraph 46.) 

In construction work the floor arches should be 
laid as soon as possible after the steelwork has been 
set, and should be kept within two floors of the der¬ 
ricks, whenever practicable. If it is not practicable 
to do this, the second floor below the erecting floor 
should be entirely planked over. One system that 
has been tried with marked success consists in com- 




















88 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


pletely planking over the erecting floor and the second 
floor under it, and shifting the lower of these two floors 
to the top every time the derricks are raised, so that 
it becomes, in its turn, the erecting floor. By this 
means all the men on the lower levels are protected, 
at all times, by at least one complete floor of planking, 
regardless of the operations that may be going on upon 
the erecting floor. It might be thought that the 
procedure here suggested would be a source of con¬ 
siderable expense, but experience shows that such is 
not the case. It saves a great deal of time for the 
steel contractor’s men, by giving them a good flooring 



Fig. 41. Approved Guard-rails for Permanent Elevator 
ShaftwAys and Other Similar Openings. 

(In the center of the picture there is also a guard for the protection of signal cords. In this 
connection, however, note the remarks under Fig. 11, page 29.) 







GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


89 


upon which to work at their bolting and riveting oper¬ 
ations while the next tier of beams is being placed; 
and the gain that is effected in this way should more 
than offset the cost of providing and handling the 
extra lumber. 

It is particularly important that the floors on which 
the derricks stand should always be planked over 
solidly, because men are traveling about upon these 
floors constantly, and tools and materials are specially 
likely to be dropped upon the other workmen below. 
In planking a floor, no matter for how short a time, 
special care should be taken to see that none of the 
planks are placed so that they can be tipped by step¬ 
ping upon their ends. Planks so set are often called 
“traps,” and they have brought death or serious in¬ 
jury to many persons. (See also paragraphs 10 and 46.) 

53. The Nail Hazard. It is often extremely 
difficult to impress upon the men the importance of 
guarding against injuries from projecting nails; and 
yet it is probable that in building construction more 
accidents result from this particular hazard than from 
any other single cause. It is true that most of the 
injuries caused by nails are of minor importance, yet 
quite a sensible proportion of them result seriously, 
and the loss of a hand or a foot, from infection received 
in this way, is by no means uncommon. 

An injury from a nail should receive immediate 
medical treatment, because septic material is likely 
to be carried into the wound by the nail. Nails 
covered with dirt or rust are especially dangerous 
in this respect, but clean nails may also give rise to 
serious trouble by introducing septic matter from the 
skin or clothing of the injured man. When a nail- 


90 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Usual Method. (Dangerous.) Correct Method. (Safe.) 

Figs. 42 and 43. Hammering Down a Projecting Nail. 


wound is properly treated it will usually heal in a 
short time, but if it is neglected, blood poisoning or 
lockjaw may follow. 

All projecting nails in boards, planks, and timbers 
should be carefully removed, hammered in, or bent 
over in a safe way; and if time will not permit of doing 
this immediately, the material should be temporarily 
stowed in piles with the points of the nails projecting 
downward, and attention should be given to the nails 
at the earliest practicable moment. Scaffold materials, 
concrete forms that have been removed, and boards 
that have been used for protecting the corners of 
building stones are often thrown down carelessly, and 
these usually have numerous nails projecting from 
them that should be withdrawn or made safe. 

54. Hand Tools. It is extremely important to 
keep all hand tools in the best possible condition. 
Edged tools should be kept sharp, and hammers, 
sledges, cold chisels, drift pins, drills, and other similar 
tools should be dressed frequently, to remove burrs 
that might otherwise fly off when the tools are struck, 
and cause injuries. 

Axes, picks, hoes, sledges, and other such imple¬ 
ments should be immediately repaired or discarded 











GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


91 


if their handles become split or broken. Provide pro¬ 
tective handles for cold chisels and drills, to avoid 
injury in case the strikers miss the heads of the tools 
when cutting or chipping stone, concrete, or metal. 

Tools should not be left lying about on scaffolds 
or stepladders, nor on beams, nor in elevated places 
of any kind from which they might fall and cause 
injuries. 

Men working in gangs should be careful to keep 
a suitable distance apart, to avoid striking one another 
with their tools and implements. 

When a number of tools or other small objects 
are to be hoisted to the working level they should not 
be lifted by the use of slings or ropes alone, but should 
be placed in suitable boxes, barrels, or buckets, in 
such a way that they cannot fall out. 

Mortar hods and brick hods should be kept in 
good condition, and any that are defective should be 
repaired or discarded. Brick hods should be loaded 
with care, and every precaution taken to prevent any 
of the bricks from falling out when the helpers are 
going up ladders, or passing along scaffolds or runways. 

55. Wheelbarrows. See that all wheelbarrows 
are maintained in good condition. If the workmen 
have to push them through narrow doorways or 
passageways, protective handles should be provided, 
to guard the workmen’s hands against being crushed 
or bruised. In placing a barrow on a material hoist, 
always make sure that no part of it projects beyond 
the edge of the hoist. 

When wheelbarrows are transported on hoists, 
the floors of the hoists should be provided with blocks 
to receive their legs, as noted in paragraph 26, page 


92 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


40; and care should be taken to see that the legs 
of the barrows are in proper position with respect 
to the blocks, before the hoists are moved. 

Do not allow the men to leave wheelbarrows so 
that their handles project out into passageways. 
Many serious accidents have been caused by persons 
colliding with these handles, in unexpected places. 

When barrows are empty, the men sometimes tip 
them to a nearly vertical position, and run with them. 
This practice is dangerous, especially when going down 
inclined runways, because the men are likely to stumble 
and be injured. 

56. Explosives. Explosives are frequently used 
in preparing foundations for buildings. It is also 
necessary, at times, to do more or less blasting in con¬ 
nection with demolition operations, although this 
should be avoided as far as possible. When explo¬ 
sives of any kind are used, they should be put in charge 
of some one person who is known to be experienced 
and thoroughly trustworthy, and who should be held 
responsible for the exercise of all possible precautions 
in connection with the storage and use of them. The 
shots should preferably be fired electrically, and in case 
of a misfire nobody should be permitted to approach 
the place where the charge is located for at least two 
hours. Ample warning should be given to all persons 
in the vicinity before a charge is fired, and when fuse 
is used it should not be lighted until it is absolutely 
certain that everybody has removed to a safe position. 
Smoking, and the use of open flames of any kind near 
explosives, should never be tolerated. It is impossible, 
in the space here available, to review the various 
dangers that are associated with the use of explosives. 


GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


93 



Fig. 44. Working Under Dangerous Conditions. 

(Steelworkers are necessarily exposed to many grave risks, and it often happens that they must 
rely, for safety, mainly or wholly upon their own coolness and judgment. The man here 
shown should wear a safety belt.) 

Detailed information on this subject is given, however, 
in a special booklet issued by the , Engineering and 
Inspection Division of The Travelers Insurance 
Company, and copies may be had upon application. 

57. Life Lines and Safety Belts. Many serious 
accidents might be averted if the men were required 
to wear safety belts secured to stout life lines whenever 
it is practicable to do so. Under certain conditions, 
for example during the early stages of construction, 
the steelworkers can seldom use these safeguards 
with advantage, because they have to move about 
freely and almost continuously. There are times, 
in fact, when life lines might be distinctly dangerous 







94 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 45. Painting the Steelwork of a “Skyscraper”. 

(The workman should have worn a safety belt and life line.) 

to the men, by impeding their movements in critical 
situations; but there are other times, beyond all 
question, when the safety of the steelworkers would be 
materially increased by the use of life lines. 

Life lines and safety belts should be used by men 
working on steeply-pitched roofs, and by those who 
are installing, adjusting, and inspecting the machines 
and other parts of suspended scaffolds. Painters 
should also be provided with these safeguards while 
at work on the steel columns and other structural 
members that have been erected, and should be re¬ 
quired to use them faithfully. There are numerous 
other operations, also, which would be made less 
hazardous by requiring the men to use these safety 







GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


95 



Fig. 46. Keep all Material Well Back from the Edges 
of Open Floors. 

devices. The safety belt is used quite generally in 
other countries, and there is no good and sufficient 
reason why we should not adopt it far more generally 
in the United States. 

Great care should always be taken to see that the life 
lines are safely secured to strong, firm supports, and they 
should be no longer than is necessary in order to permit 
the work to be done without inconvenience. Otherwise, 
if a man should fall, the rope would be subjected to a 
snapping stress of unnecessary severity, and it would be 
more likely to break than if it were shorter. 

Inspect and thoroughly test all life lines and safety 
belts at frequent intervals, and see that they are in 
first-class condition in all respects. 












96 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



58. Miscellaneous. Provide adequate artificial 
light wherever necessary, throughout the building, and 
especially in passageways and on stairways. Incan¬ 
descent electric lamps that burn continuously through¬ 
out the working period should be inspected twice a 
day, and all broken or burned-out lamps should be 
immediately replaced by new ones. 


Fig. 47. Poorly-piled Floor Tiles. 

(These should be stowed much more carefully, in orderly and regular piles not more than 
six blocks in height.) 

It is especially important to keep all stairways, 
passageways, and gangways free from obstructions 
of every kind, and the men should not be allowed to 
store materials or supplies in these places. 

Keep all materials and supplies well away from 
the edges of hoist shaftways, stair wells, and other 









GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


97 



similar openings, and also from the outside walls of 
the building. Do not permit material to be piled 
to an unsafe height, nor in an unsafe way. Floor tile 
blocks, for example, should not be piled to a height 
exceeding 6 feet. Make sure that all piles of material 


Fig. 48. A Dangerous Pile of Bricks. 
are safe against falling over, and brace them effect¬ 
ively, or make them secure in some other way, when¬ 
ever support of this kind is needed. Loose, light 
material should not be left lying about on roofs, nor 







98 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 



Fig. 49. Using a Cloth Screen to Prevent Chips of Stone 
from Flying into the Street. 

(The workman was less mindful of his own safety, however, as he was not wearing 
eye protectors.) 

on upper floors that are not closed in, especially when 
high winds are prevailing, because it is likely to be 
blown off into the street and cause injuries. 

Bolts, nuts, and rivets should not be left lying 
about, but should be collected daily and placed in kegs 
or other suitable receptacles. 

Caution the men with regard to handling bags 
containing lime, because these bags sometimes burst 
and the lime gets into the eyes of the workmen, causing 
serious and painful injuries. 

Men engaged in cutting or chipping concrete, 
stone, or metal, should wear suitable goggles or eye- 
protectors to prevent injuries to the eyes from flying 
chips. Similar eye-protectors should be worn by the 












GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


99 


men when doing any other work that is likely to cause 
injury to the eyes. 

When chipping is being done in exposed places 
the public should be protected against flying pieces 
of stone or metal by stout screens placed in positions 
where they will intercept the chips. When a number 
of men are working in a group upon cutting or trim¬ 
ming operations of this nature, they should also be pro¬ 
tected from one another by means of similar screens. 

Provide facilities for giving first-aid treatment 
in case of accident. On every construction job a 
first-aid cabinet should be kept in the contractor’s 
office, or in some other convenient and accessible 
location. It should contain all of the supplies needed 
for use in first-aid work, and it should be placed in 
charge of some person who is known to be competent 
to render first-aid treatment properly and effectively, 
and whose services are immediately available at all 
times. On many large construction jobs hospital 
rooms are provided, having facilities for more extensive 
treatment, and with trained nurses in constant attend¬ 
ance. These are recommended wherever it is prac¬ 
ticable to provide them. In all cases, arrangements 
should be made so that a competent physician may be 
procured with the least possible delay. The addresses 
and telephone numbers of several who are near by 
should be posted in a conspicuous place. 

59. Inspections. No one thing is more essential 
to safety in building operations than intelligent and 
thorough inspections; and the service should be fre¬ 
quent, because the conditions that prevail in such work 
change quite rapidly. If the operation is a large one, 
it is often advisable to have at least one inspector on 


100 


THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 


the premises constantly, while the work is progressing 
most actively; and on the very largest jobs it may at 
times be wise to have two or even more men thus 
engaged. On a small job it is not feasible to maintain 
a man continuously for inspection work only, but in a 
case of this kind it is easy for the foreman to have 
personal knowledge of every important condition, and 
with the assistance of a professional inspector at 
reasonable intervals he should be able to conduct the 
operation in a safe way. 

A plan that has been found to work well in opera¬ 
tions of average size consists in making a preliminary 
inspection as soon as the work is started, and submit¬ 
ting recommendations for the improvement of condi¬ 
tions and the installation of suitable safeguards. On 
his next visit the inspector sees that the recommenda¬ 
tions have been carried out, or are in process of ful¬ 
filment, and submits new recommendations to cover 
new conditions that have arisen on account of the 
progress of the work. This routine is followed at 
each inspection visit, to insure safety at all times. 

It is reasonable to suppose that the best inspec¬ 
tion service will be rendered by a corporation that has 
a large money-interest staked upon the safety of the 
men, because a corporation of this kind has a definite 
and positive material incentive to thoroughness and 
efficiency. The contractor also has an interest in 
the matter, financial as well as humane; but he has 
many other things to think of at the same time, and 
he can hardly give the safety problem the minute 
attention that it must receive, if accidents are to be 
prevented or effectually reduced. The compensation 
and liability insurance company is the most logical 


GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 


101 


source from which efficient inspections may be expected, 
and if it is alive to its possibilities and responsibilities 
it will maintain an inspection force that is competent 
to deal with the accident problem in an intelligent and 
effective manner. 











































































— 








• 





' 





. 







✓ 









0 





INDEX. 


Acetylene gas is poisonous, 7. 

—See also Oxy-acetylene. 

Air, compressed, and “practical jokes”, 83. 

Air hose, care of, 83. 

Arches.—See Floor arches. 

Beams, the immediate riveting of, 79. 

to be secured before being cut, 7. 

Belts, safety, 93. 

Bents, supporting, to be placed under derrick, 55. 

Blasting.—See Explosives. 

Blasting logs.—See Logs , blasting. 

Blocks, lead, guards for, 35. 

for manila ropes and wire cables should not be used interchange¬ 
ably, 32. 

Boilers for hoisting engines, precautions in the use of, 25. 

Brakes for hoisting engines, 25. 

solenoid, for electric motors, 27. 

Breast derricks.—See Derricks , breast. 

Bricks should not be piled directly upon the ground, 10. 

Bridle slings.—See Slings. 

Buildings under construction, excluding persons from, 22. 

“Bull-tail”, description of, 59. 

Cabinets, first-aid, 99. 

Cables, sway, 81. 

passing through floors to be guarded, 32. 
and sheaves, relative sizes of, 32. 

Carbon monoxide, 8. 

Chimneys should not be pulled down bodily, 6. 

Chutes, material, 4. 

gates for, 4. 

Columns, climbing up and sliding down on, 78. 


104 


Index 


Compressed air.—See Air. 

Contractor’s office, location of, 18. 

Cords.—See Signal cords. 

Crank-shafts of steam shovels to be guarded, 14. 

“Dead-logs”, 51. 

“Dead-men”, 51, 53. 

Demolition, planning the work, 1. 

work, general counsel, 1. 

should proceed systematically, 4. 

Derrick bay should be fully bolted or riveted, 55. 
booms, “topping up”, 61. 
foot-blocks, method of securing, 57. 
sheaves, size and arrangement of, 50. 

Derricks, breast or house, to be guyed from front and back, 59. 

handles to be secured in place, 59. 
setting and securing bases of, 60. 
guy, general description of, 51. 
methods of anchoring, 51. 
method of attaching guys to, 51. 
stiff-leg, material and construction, 47. 

effect of improperly-fitted goose-necks, 50. 
importance of weighting properly, 51. 
general types of, 47. 
mechanical brakes for, 57, 61. 
supporting bents for, 55. 
raising, precautions to be taken, 55. 
general precautions in the use of, 60. 
moving parts of, to be well lubricated, 61. 
inspection of, 61. 

Doctors, 99. 

Doorways beneath scaffolds should be guarded, 68. 

Dust, wet floors to keep down, 11. 

Electric wires, danger from, when demolishing buildings, 2. 
Engines.—See Hoisting engines. 

Excavation work, general suggestions for, 12. 

Excavations to be guarded on all sides, 12. 

material to be kept away from edges of, 12. 
should be kept free from building materials, 13. 
Explosives, precautions in the use of, 92. 

Eye-protectors.—See Goggles. 

Eyes, acetylene flame injurious to, 7. 

Fire hazard when using acetylene torches, 9. 

First-aid treatment, 99. 


Index 


105 


Flashboards for wagons, 6. 

Floor arches to be laid as soon as possible, 87. 

tiles, safe height for piling, 97. 

Flooring, temporary, to be placed below erecting floor, 87. 
Floors, openings in, to be covered over, 10, 84. 
erecting, to be covered over tightly, 81. 
on which derricks stand to be planked over solidly, 89. 
Foot-blocks for guy derricks, method of securing, 57. 
Foundations, removing in short sections, 2. 
undermining, 12. 

Gangs, erecting, 78. 

Gangways to be kept free from obstructions, 96. 

Gas, acetylene, is poisonous, 7. 

illuminating, danger from, when demolishing buildings, 2. 
Gates for material chutes, 4. 

for material-hoist shaft ways, 35. 

Gin pole used for raising derrick, 55. 

Glass, broken, should be removed from buildings, 11. 

Gloves for operators of acetylene torches, 7. 
steelworkers, 78. 

Goggles for operators of acetylene torches, 7. 

men engaged in cutting and chipping, 98. 
Goose-necks.—See Derricks , stiff-leg. 

Guard-bars for material-hoist shaftways, 35. 

Guards for cables, blocks, and sheaves, 31. 
for hoisting engines, 25. 
for steam shovels, 14. 

Guys.—See Derricks , guy. 

Hammers, pneumatic, securing snaps and plungers of, 82. 
Hoist, passenger, safety device should be installed, 42. 

Hoisting engines, location and protection of, 23. 
guards for, 25. 
types of, 25. 

Hoists, material, riding on forbidden, 40. 

protection for, 35. 
covering for overhead work of, 37. 
passenger, to be installed as early as possible, 40. 

regular operators to be provided, 41. 
should not be overloaded, 42. 
protection for, 42. 

Horses used in excavating operations, 13. 

Hose, air, care of, 83. 

Hospital rooms, 99. 

House derricks.—See Derricks, breast. 


106 


Index 


House-wrecking.—See Demolition. 

Illumination.—See Light. 

Inspections, methods of making and value of, 99. 

Ladders, materials for, 70. 
joining, 74. 

should not exceed 35 ft. in length, 73. 
to extend above landings, 72. 
safety shoes and spurs for, 72. 
securing and bracing, 72. 
sheathing underneath, 73. 
of double width, 72. 

Ladderways, separate, for ascending and descending, 73. 
Lamps, incandescent electric, inspection of, 96. 

Life lines, 93. 

Light, artificial, to be provided where necessary, 96. 

Lime, care in handling bags of, 98. 

Limit-stops for hoists, 25. 

Logs, blasting, used for anchoring derricks, 53. 

Lubrication of moving parts of derricks important, 61. 

Material, long, precautions in hoisting, 40. 

never to be hoisted through stairway openings, 40. 
light, should not be left on roofs, 97. 
hoists.—See Hoists, material. 

Materials, throwing from upper floors, 4. 

old, to be removed promptly, 10. 
storage of, 10, 21. 

heavy, to be hoisted outside of building, 40. 
should not be stored on scaffold platforms, 67. 
to be kept back from edges of openings, 96. 
care in piling, 97. 

Men, selecting with reference to capabilities, 1. 
Mercury-filled U-tube indicates tipping of steam shovel, 16. 
Metal cut by oxy-acetylene flame, 7. 

Mortar beds under scaffolds to be roofed over, 68. 

Motors, electric, for hoisting, 26. 

Nail hazard, 89. 

Nails, serious nature of injuries caused by, 89. 

Needle-beams for riveters’ scaffolds, 64. 

Office, contractor’s, location of, 18. 

Openings for hoisting, protection for, 10. 
in floors to be guarded, 84. 


Index 


107 


Openings, small, to be covered over, 86. 

—See also Floors. 

Oxy-acetylene cutting-flame used in demolition work, 7. 

Oxygen tanks, care in handling, 10. 

Passageways to be kept free from obstructions, 96. 

beneath scaffolds should be guarded, 68. 

Passenger hoists.—See Hoists, passenger. 

Pavements, protection for, 20. 

Physicians, 99. 

Piling, sheet, necessary when demolishing buildings, 2. 

Platforms, protective, on buildings, 18. 
rivet-heaters’, 82. 

Powder cans for catching hot rivets, 82. 

Refuse.—See Rubbish. 

Riding on material hoists prohibited, 40. 
on loads prohibited, 78. 

Riveting beams when first erected, 81. 

Rivets, bolts, and nuts to be collected daily, 98. 
throwing, 82. 

Rope, hemp, for raising derricks, 57. 

—See also Signal cords. 

Rubbish should be removed promptly, 10. 

Runways, arrangement of ends of planks on, 77. 

to have hand-rails and foot-boards, 76. 
number of planks in, 75. 
to be effectively braced, 75. 

Safety belts.—See Belts, safety. 

Scaffolds to be used when removing thin or weak walls, 7. 
overhead protection for, 66. 
protection for men working under, 68. 
should be removed as soon as possible, 69. 
in ventilating and elevator shafts, 68. 
horse, their construction and use, 63. 
pole, to be properly designed and constructed, 62. 
riveters’, their construction and use, 64. 
suspended, precautions in connection with, 62. 
painters’, precautions in the use of, 65. 
to be tested, 66. 

Schlesinger’s “ Unfallverh'utungstechnik", 11. 

Screen to intercept flying chips of stone, 99. 

Screens for riveters’ scaffolds, 65. 

Shaftways of material .hoists, protection for, 35. 

Sheaves and cables, relative sizes of, 32. 


108 


Index 


Sheaves, self-lubricating, cast-steel, 35. 
for hoisting, 31. 

—See also Derrick sheaves. 

Shoes for steelworkers, 78. 

Shoring buildings that are to be demolished, 2. 

adjoining buildings in demolition work, 2. 
Shovels, electrically operated, 16. 

steam.—See Steam shovels. 

Sidewalk sheds and bridges, 17. 

Signal cords, joining the ends of, 30. 
protection for, 30. 
run through pipes, 30. 

Signaling systems for hoisting, 27. 

Signs, danger, at discharge end of material chutes, 6. 
Slings, adjusting about loads, 43. 
bridle, 45. 

toggle, 45. 
toggle column, 45. 
should have identification tags, 46. 
effect of inclination of, 44. 
to be locked up when not in use, 45. 
precautions in the use of, 42 
preservative treatment of, 44. 

to be protected when loads have sharp corners, 44. 
two complete sets advisable, 45. 
wire-cable, proper method of inspecting, 43. 

sharp bends to be avoided, 43. 
preferable to chains or fiber ropes, 42. 
Smoking near explosives prohibited, 92. 

Solenoid brakes.—See Brakes. 

Stairways to be kept free from obstructions, 96. 
storing material on, 74. 
to be installed as rapidly as possible, 74. 
Steamboat ratchets for tightening derrick guys, 57. 

Steam shovels, in general, 14. 

precautions to prevent upsetting, 15. 
device to indicate tipping of, 16. 

Steel, structural, care in handling, 83. 

Steelworkers, precautions to be observed by, 78. 

Stops, limit.—See Limit-stops. 

Storage of material in highways, 21. 

used building materials, 10. 

Storms, work to be discontinued during, 78. 

Street coverings, openings in, to be guarded, 18. 

Streets, protecting sheds over, 17, 18. 

Switchboards and switches, 27. 


Index 


109 


Tanks, oxygen, care in handling, 10. 

Tiles.—See Floor tiles. 

Toggle slings.—See Slings. 

Tools, care in hoisting, 91. 

hand, to be kept in good condition, 90. 

Torches.—See Oxy-acetylene. 

Traps, 89. 

Turnbuckles, steamboat ratchets to be used in place of, 57. 

“ Unfallverhutungstechnik,” Schlesinger’s, 11. 

Wagons used in excavation work, 13. 
flashboards for, 6. 

loading by means of steam shovels, 15. 

Walls, building, shoring, 12. 

removing in sections, 6, 12. 
of excavations to be braced, 12. 
to be inspected frequently, 12. 

Wetting-down floors to prevent dust, 11. 

Wheelbarrows, care in storing, 92. 

guides for, on material hoists, 40, 91. 
protective handles for, 91. 

Windows, early removal desirable in demolition work, 10. 
Winds, high, work to be discontinued during, 78. 

Wrecking.—See Demolition work. 









































































































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FOR SEVEN CENTS A DAY 

a 20=year paid-up life policy 


S UPPOSE the case of a man of thirty who 
has a wife and family to provide for. He 
pays $25.45 a year twenty times and then 
no more. When he dies, his family receives 
$ 1,000—either in a lump sum, or however else 
he may have directed. 

Meantime other benefits have been avail¬ 
able, among them the privilege of borrowing 
on his policy. 

A NOTHER example: The man’s wife is 
thirty years old. He pays $49.66 a year 
twenty times, and then no more. Less than 
fourteen cents a day! When the man dies his 
wife receives $ 1 0 a month income for the re£t 
of her life. If she dies, the payments go on, to 
her heirs, till a twenty-years period is completed. 

For seventy cents a day, an income of $50 a month 
for life is provided. 

These are only random examples. The TRAVELERS 
writes all kinds of life policies at the most advantageous terms. 






STOPPING ACCIDENTS 
BY CONTRACT 


I NSURANCE is a sub-contract—worthy of all care in the letting. 
The great men of the structural world to-day do not 
tru& to their own lieutenants for the promotion of safety, 
nor to their own resources for the payment of claims. 

They choose the moSt substantial and moSt progressive 
casualty company they can find and enter into a contract 
to place all these matters on the company’s shoulders. 


tfjTHumanity suggests this course. Good business sense confirms 
TUthe suggestion. You who built that skyscraper of gleaming 
marble: Are you able to think of it as a monument to your ability, or 
onlv as the headstone of the men who were killed in its construction? 


You who are putting up those great factory buildings: Do you 
want your profits to be drawn on for a quarter of a century or more 
to meet payments for compensation to fatherless families? 


WHEN TRAVELERS EXPERTS BEGIN, 
THE ACCIDENTS STOP 


$rTTThe first thing THE TRAVELERS does is to prevent the accidents. To 
accomplish this it brings to bear the finest inspection service in the world, of 
engineers trained through long years in the detection of danger. 

They make the work FASTER, as well as safer. TRAVELERS inspection 
economizes work-hours; for every contractor knows that a bad accident demoral¬ 
izes the entire force for hours afterward. 

A few hundred dollars in premiums saves hundreds of thousands in accidents. 
And, as the work achieves a record for safety, the premium charge grows smaller. 

£JT The TRAVELERS is the greatest casualty company in the 
jl world because it has always been the leader in preventive and safety work. 

Its policies cover the contractor’s responsibility for accidents, whether they 
happen to his employees or to the public. 

And TRAVELERS POLICIES COST NO MORE THAN OTHERS. 

Ask any agent about policy forms and about the books and booklets on safety. 

THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY 

Hartford, Connecticut 











